自我东方化(7篇)

篇一：自我东方化

　　

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　　I106密

　　级

　　硕

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　　学

　　位

　　论

　　文

　　论张爱玲自译作品的自我东方化倾向

　　学

　　位

　　申

　　请

　　人

　　陈会琴

　　指

　　导

　　教

　　师

　　舒奇志

　　教授

　　学

　　院

　　名

　　称

　　外国语学院

　　学

　　科

　　专

　　业

　　英语语言文学

　　研

　　究

　　方

　　向

　　文化研究与翻译

　　二零一一年六月六日

　　Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translatedWorks

　　Candidate

　　ChenHuiqin

　　Supervisor

　　Prof.ShuQizhi

　　College

　　CollegeofForeignLanguages

　　Program

　　EnglishLanguageandLiterature

　　Specialization

　　CulturalStudiesandTranslation

　　Degree

　　MasterofArts

　　University

　　XiangtanUniversity

　　Date

　　June6,2011湘潭大学

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　　DescriptiveChineseAbstract

　　摘

　　要

　　张爱玲是中国现代史上的一位传奇人物，她不仅创作了大量文学作品，也翻译了不少著作。国内外许多专家学者主要偏重于对张爱玲文学成就的研究，而对其译者身份和译作的研究直到近几年才引起关注。到目前为止，有关这方面的研究成果多局限于对她翻译成就的概括性介绍，或只是从杂合、女性主义、接受美学和意识形态等视角去分析其翻译文本，对于张爱玲作为译者独特的文化身份及其翻译的后殖民语境关注不够，从而忽视了张爱玲自译的自我东方化倾向。

　　在后殖民理论中，自我东方化是指一些东方文化精英分子往往认同西方文化的优越性和自身文化的卑劣性，甚至在他们的作品中通过简单化、概括化和夸张等手法来巩固西方对东方的刻板印象。自我东方化影响着译者的文化身份，同时也会在翻译中留下痕迹，这主要从翻译文本的选择和翻译方法的采用两方面体现出来。本文试图以后殖民翻译理论为指导，以张爱玲自译为研究对象，从翻译语境、文化身份、自译文本选择、自译目的以及方法的采用等方面论述其自我东方化倾向的原因及其表现。

　　本文的主要内容包括三章。第一章从翻译语境和文化身份方面探讨张爱玲自译的自我东方化倾向的原因，并指出这是中西方权力不平等、赞助者美国驻香港新闻处以及张爱玲本人的文化身份的自我东方化倾向影响的结果。第二章讨论张爱玲自译文本选择的自我东方化倾向。张爱玲的翻译文本主要表现了两个主题：性变态的中国女人与被“阉割”的中国男人；专制暴力的中国。她的自译文本再现了西方对中国神秘、落后、堕落和暴力的刻板印象以及西方人对中国政治体制和中国共产党持有的批判和鄙夷态度，其理由在于只有表现中国的东方“他者”形象的文本才能够引起西方读者的窥视和阅读欲望。第三章引用具体例证考察分析张爱玲自译目的的自我东方化倾向以及实现这一目的的翻译方法，认为为了凸显和渲染中国文化的滑稽、堕落和停滞，张爱玲多采用直译、增译和随意改写的翻译方法。与此同时，为了扫除西方读者的阅读障碍和提高文本的可读性，她又采用文化置换的翻译方法来传达原文的内容。

　　本文从翻译研究的后殖民视角捕捉到了张爱玲作为自译者的独特文化身份。通过考察其自译作品的自我东方化倾向，本文揭示出张爱玲通过自译文本的选择以及翻译方法的采用来迎合西方对中国的刻板印象与印证西方文化的普适性和优越性，也证明了在后殖民语境下翻译不是一种透明和平等的文化活动。

　　关键词：自译；自我东方化；文化身份；文本选择；翻译目的I

　　EnglishAbstract

　　Abstract

　　ZhangAilingwasalegendaryfigureinChinesemodernhistory.Shenotonlywrotenumerousworks,butalsotranslatedarelativelylargenumberofworks.Researchersandexpertsathomeandabroadmainlyfocusonherliteraryachievements.Onlyinrecentyearsdidacademiccirclesbegintopayattentiontoheridentityasatranslatorandhertranslatedworks.Uptillnow,researchesonhertranslationeithercenteronanintroductionofhertranslationaccomplishments,oranalyzehertranslatedworksfromtheconceptofhybridity,femaletranslationtheory,receptiontheoryortheperspectiveofideology.However,thepostcolonialcontextofherself-translationaswellasheruniqueculturalidentityasatranslatordoesnotreceiveitsdueattention,consequentlyself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworksisneglected.

　　Inpostcolonialtheory,self-orientalizationreferstotheidentificationwithsuperiorityoftheOccidentalcultureandinferiorityoftheOrientalculturebysomeOrientalélite,whoevenconfirmtheOccidentals’prototypeimageoftheOrientbysimplification,generalizationandexaggerationintheirworks.Self-orientalizationinfluencestranslators’culturalidentity,andleavestracesintranslation,whichcanbereflectedfromtheselectionofsourcetextsandtheadoptionoftranslationapproaches.Fromthepostcolonialperspectiveoftranslationstudies,thethesisaimstoexpoundcausesandmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translatedworksthroughanalyzingthesocialcontext,herculturalidentity,self-translationtextselection,self-translationpurposesandapproaches.

　　Themainbodyofthethesisisdividedintothreeparts.PartOneprobesintocauseswhichcontribute

　　toself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translatedworksintermsofthesocialcontextandculturalidentity,pointingoutthatitisresultedfromtheinfluencesofpowerimbalancebetweenChinaandtheWest,theUnitedStatesInformationAgency(thepatronage)andself-orientalizationinherculturalidentity.PartTwodiscussesZhangAiling’sself-translationtextselection.Inherchoiceofthesourcetexts,ZhangAilingmainlyselectedtextsthatrepresentthepervertedChinesewomenand“castrated”Chinesemen,andtextsofadespoticChina.Herself-translatedtextsreflecttheWesterners’stereotypedimpressionsofamystic,backward,depravedandviolentChinaaswellastheirbiasedanddisdainfulattitudesII

　　EnglishAbstract

　　towardsChinesepoliticalsystemandChineseCommunistParty,becauseonlytheOriental“Other”

　　imageofChinacouldsatisfytheWesterners’

　　voyeuristicdesireandarousetheirinteresttoread.PartThreeexaminesself-orientalizationinherself-translationpurposesandadoptionoftranslationapproachesbyanalyzingtheconcreteexamples.Inordertorepresentandexaggeratethealienation,inferiorityandweirdnessofChineseculture,ZhangAilingadoptedliteraltranslation,additionandrewriting.Meanwhile,sheusedculturaltranspositiontoexpresstheoriginalcontentwiththepurposeofremovingcomprehensionobstaclestotheWesternreadersandincreasingreadability.

　　Fromthepostcolonialperspectiveoftranslationstudies,thethesiscapturesZhangAiling’suniqueculturalidentityasaself-translator.Andbyinvestigatingself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworks,thethesisrevealsthatZhangAilingconformedtotheWesterners’stereotypedimageofChinaandconfirmeduniversalityandsuperiorityoftheWesternculturethroughtheselectionofself-translationworksandtheadoptionoftranslationapproaches,andprovesthattranslationisnotatransparentandequalculturalundertakinginthepostcolonialcontext.

　　Keywords:self-translation;self-orientalization;culturalidentity;translationtextselection;translationpurposesIII

　　ContentsContentsDescriptiveChineseAbstract...........................................................................................I

　　EnglishAbstract

　　..................................................................................................................II

　　Introduction

　　...........................................................................................................................1Chapter1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasa

　　Translator

　　.....................................................................................................11.1TheSocialContextforZhangAiling’sSelf-orientalization......................11.1.1TheConstraintsofPowerImbalance.................................................111.1.2TheInfluenceofPatronage...............................................................131.2ManifestationsofSelf-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentity...151.2.1IdentificationwithInferiorityofChineseCultureandSuperiorityoftheWesternCulture..........................................................................16Chapter2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection.......................................................................................................222.1SelectionofTextsofPervertedChineseWomenand“Castrated”ChineseMen............................................................................................................232.2SelectionofTextsofAutocraticChina......................................................21.2.2ConstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”inHerWorks...........1Chapter3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　..........................................................................................313.1FittingintheWesterners’PrototypeImageofChina................................323.1.1RepresentingaDepravedandPrimitiveChinabyLiteralTranslation.....32IV

　　Contents3.1.2MagnifyingtheNegativeAspectsofChineseCulturebyAddition......343.1.3RidiculingandMarginalizingChinesePeoplebyRewriting............43.2ConfirmingUniversalityoftheWesternCulturebyTransposition...........413.3CateringtotheWesterners’SenseofCulturalSuperioritybyDeletion....45Conclusion

　　...........................................................................................................................4Notes

　　......................................................................................................................................52WorksCited

　　........................................................................................................................53Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................5InformativeChineseAbstract

　　......................................................................................5RésuméandPublicationssinceEnteringtheProgram

　　.....................................62V

　　Introduction

　　IntroductionZhangAiling张爱玲

　　(1920-1995),aprominentandlegendaryfigureinChinesemodernliteraryhistory,gainedbothfameandwealthsoonafterthepublicationofherfirstcollectionofshortstoriesRomance(《传奇》),in1944.Asweknow,theperiodfrom1943to1945markedthemostimportantperiodforherliterarycreation,whenmostofherwellreceivedbookswereproduced.However,herfamewasinterruptedbyChinesepeople’striumphintheWarofResistanceagainstJapanesein1945.DuetoherapoliticalstanceintheWarofResistanceagainstJapaneseandhermarriagewithHuLancheng胡兰成,anotoriouspropagandistforWangpuppetgovernment,shehadtoleaveShanghaiforHongKongin1952.CommissionedbytheUnitedStatesInformationAgency(abbreviatedtoU.S.I.Ahereafter),shebegantotranslateAmericanliteratureintoChinese.Takeforexample,MarjorieK.Rawlings’

　　TheYearlingwastranslatedintoXiaolu(《小鹿》),ErnestHemingway’sTheOldManandtheSeaintoLaorenYuhai(《老人与海》),RalphWaldoEmerson’sThePortableEmersonintoTheSelectionofEmerson(《爱默森文选》),WilliamVanO’Connor’s“Introduction”

　　into“Xu”

　　(序),HenryDavidThoreau’s“MemoriesofWinter”into“DongtiandeHuiyi”(冬天的回忆),WashingtonIrving’s“TheLegendofSleepyHollow”into“HeadlessKnight”(无头骑士),TennesseeWilliams’TheGlassMenagerieintoLiuliji(《琉璃集》)andsoon.Shealsoself-translatedherEnglishnovelsintoChinese,includingtranslationof“StaleMates”into“WusiYishi”《五四遗事》,TheRice-SproutSongintoYangge(《秧歌》)andTheRougeoftheNorthintoEmbitteredWomen(《怨女》).InadditiontotheseEnglish-Chinesetranslationworks,shetranslatedherownChineseworksintoEnglish.Forexample,LoveinRedLand(《赤地之恋》)wastranslatedintoTheNakedEarth,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”

　　(桂花蒸

　　阿小悲秋)into“Shame,Amah!”,“Jinsuoji”(金锁记)into“TheGoldenCangue”,“Deng”(等)into“LittleFingerUp”,etc..

　　AlthoughZhangAilingmadegreatcontributionstotranslation,onlyinrecentyearsdidscholarsgraduallyshowtheirinterestinhertranslation.Theresearchcanbegroupedintotwomaincategories.ThefirstcategorymakesanintroductionofZhangAilingasatranslatorandhertranslatedworks,andbelievesthatsheisanoutstandingtranslator.Representative1IntroductionresearchcanbefoundinTranslationandContextuality(《翻译与脉络》)byShanDexing单德兴

　　(2007),“HarmonizationofMultifacetedFactors:aResearchonTranslationWorksofZhangAiling”byYangXue杨雪

　　(2007),and“AStudyonZhangAilingasaTranslator”byMaRuofei马若飞

　　(2007).ShanDexingusesachapterentitled“EileenChangasaChineseTranslatorofAmericanLiterature”todiscussherChineseversionsofAmericanliteratureandpointsoutthatshemadesomemistakesinhertranslationsuchasmistranslation,omissionandaddition.Inaddition,heelaboratesthatZhangAiling’stranslationwassubjecttotheColdWarmentality.Healsocontributestothestudyofhertranslationbyaddingtwoinformativelists,namelythelistofZhangAiling’sEnglish-ChinesetranslationworksandthelistofZhangAiling’sChinese-Englishtranslationworks.Incontrast,YangXue,throughqualitativeandquantitativeanalysis,holdstheviewthatharmonizationofmultifacetedfactorsisZhangAiling’stranslation

　　principle.MaRuofeielaboratesonZhangAiling’stranslationaltalentsandpractice,comparesherwithVladimirNabokovintermsofself-translation,andanalyzeshowideology,powerdiscourse,andpatronageexertedinfluencesonhertranslation.ThesecondcategoryisresearchonZhangAiling’stranslatedworksfromdifferentangles.Forexample,ChenJirong陈吉荣

　　(2007)studiestranslationcharacteristicsof“TheGoldenCangue”

　　inthelightofontology,expoundingthatZhangAilingadoptedthetranslationstrategyofforeignizationfromtheangleofChineseculture,attachedgreatimportancetothesourceworks,andshoweddistinctlyherfemalegenderstandpoint.OtherscholarslikeTangRen唐韧

　　(2008)andRuanGuanghong阮广红

　　(2009)carryoutresearchinto“TheGoldenCangue”,statingthatZhangAilingtookintoconsiderationreaders’horizonofexpectation,andadheredtothereader-focusedprinciple.Inaddition,somethesesapplyfemaletranslationtheory,hybridity,translator’ssubjectivity,transitionalintertextualityandideologytoZhangAiling’stranslationstudy.①

　　TakeDengLijuan’s邓丽娟

　　(2007)“AStudyontheInterventionistFeministStrategiesinEileenChang’sTranslations”

　　forexample,thethesisanalyzeshowZhangAilingusedinterventionistfeministstrategiessuchas“hi-jacking”,prefacingandsupplementingtomanifestherfeministthought.ItcanbeseenthatstudiesofZhangAiling’stranslationeithercenteronextra-textualanalysisfromamacroscopicview,orfocusoninner-textualanalysisfromamicroscopicview.However,thepostcolonialcontextofherself-translationaswellasheruniquecultural2Introductionidentityasatranslatordoesnotreceiveitsdueattention;consequentlyself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworksisneglected.WangXiaoying王晓莺

　　(2009)istheonlyexception.ShebrieflyintroducesthreestagesofZhangAiling’sChinese-Englishself-translation,appliespostcolonialismtoanalyzehertranslation,andfindsoutthathertranslationwasinfluencedbyOrientalismandheridentityasafemaletranslator.Nowadaysthereisagrowinginterestinpostcolonialliteratureandcriticism.AccordingtoDouglasRobinson,postcolonialismrefersto“astateofcultureorofculturestudiesarisingoutoftheexperienceofcolonialismanditsaftermath;concernedwithproblemsofgroupidentityasreflectedinlanguage,culture,law,education,politics,etc.;favorablydisposedtodiversityofallkinds,andsuspiciousofsimplisticsolutionstocomplexproblemsbasedonpurification”(121).PostcolonialismmainlydealswithpowerdifferentialsbetweentheEastandtheWestaswellasracialism,culturalidentityandhegemony.Whenitisappliedtotranslationstudies,itisthepostcolonialperspective.Postcolonialtranslationtheoriesconcernwith“theasymmetricalrelationsofpower”

　　intranslation,andexploretherelationoftranslationwithculturalidentity,Orientalism,ideologyandpoliticalstruggle(Niranjana2).Therefore,muchimportancehasbeenattachedtotheexteriorconstraintsontranslation.Becauseofpowerdisparitybetweenahegemoniccultureandadominatedculture,thereneverexistsequaldialoguesbetweendifferentcultures,whichnegatesequivalenceandaccuracyintranslation.

　　PostcolonialtranslationtheoriesoriginatefrompostcolonialismwithEdwardW.Saidasapioneercritic.InhisrepresentativeworkOrientalism,whatisunderdiscussionisnotanobjectiveandtrueOrient,butanOrientimaginedandconstructedbytheOccidentals’prejudiceandstereotypes.Ontheonehand,theOrient“hadbeensinceantiquityaplaceofromance,exoticbeings,hauntingmemoriesandlandscapes,remarkableexperiences”(1);ontheotherhand,theOrientisfeminine,coward,disgraceful,backward,passive,abnormal,emotional,pagan,poor,evil,uglyandprimitive,contrastedwiththeOccidentwhichismasculine,brave,noble,advanced,active,normal,reasonable,Christian,rich,good,beautifulandcivilized.ItcanbeseenthattheOrientplaysaroleoftheopposite“Other”oftheOccident,anindicationofdiscourseviolenceofadominantcultureagainstaminoritycultureandareflectionoftheOccidentalcountries’tremendouspower.Therefore,therelationship3IntroductionbetweentheWestandtheEastisthatofobserversandtheobserved,enlightenersandtheenlightened,dominatorsandthedominated.TheWesternersgetmuchjoyfromwatchingthemysteriousandexoticEast.Meanwhile,theymaintainasenseofculturalsuperiority,claimingthattheycansavetheEastfrombackwardness,darkness,despotismanddifficulty.Inthisway,theyrationalizetheirculturalaggression.Inessence,Orientalismisamirrorimageofculturalhegemonyofimperialism,areflectionofpowerdifferentials,andameansofconceptualizingtheworldbytheWesterners,whichsegregatestheworldintooursandothers,placingtheWesternworldinadominantpositionandmakingWesternstandardruletheworld.

　　OrientalismnotonlyexertsinfluencesontheWesterners’perceptionoftheEast,butalsoaffectstheEasterners’self-representation.WecannotjustreprehendtheWesterners,becauseintellectualsintheEastalsopartakeinproducingthedomestic“Other”,justasSaidpointsout“themodernOrient,inshort,participatesinitsownOrientalizing”(325).ItcanbeseenthatOrientalismisnotjusttheOccidentals’collectiveimaginationandproduction,butalsotheconsequenceofthecomplicityoftheOrientals.However,Saidjusttouchesupontheissuewithoutfurtherexploration.ArifDirlik,whomakesupthisdeficiency,proposestheissueofOrientalismoftheOrientalsorself-orientalizationinhispaperentitled“ChineseHistoryandtheQuestionofOrientalism”.Hestates:

　　WhiletheOccident/Orientdistinction,andOrientalismasconceptandpractice,areofEuropeanorigin,andthetermOrientalismhasbeenusedalmostexclusivelytodescribetheattitudesofEuropeanstowardAsiansocieties,IwouldliketosuggestherethattheusageneedstobeextendedtoAsianviewsofAsia,toaccountfortendenciestoself-orientalizationwhichwouldbecomeanintegralpartofthehistoryofOrientalism.(102)Intheworldculturalconfiguration,theWesternpowersestablishworldordersystembyplacingtheirownvaluesystematthecenterplaceonthebasisoftheireconomic,political,militaryandculturalstrength.Therefore,theWesterncountriesbecometheproducersandrulersofpowerdiscourse,representingtheEasterncountriesasprimitiveandbackward.Meanwhile,theEasterncountriesareforcedtoaccepttheworldpolitical,economicand4IntroductionculturalorderruledbytheWesternpowersandbecomepassiveobjectsofOrientalismimpact.TheresponseisthattheAsiansanalyzetheirself-imageintheculturalconfigurationestablishedbytheWesterncountries.TheOrientals,especiallytheOrientalélitewhohaveEasternbloodandknowledgebackgroundbutliveintheWesterncountries,accepttheirimagesconstructedbytheWesternpowersconsciouslyorunconsciously,evenconfirmandperpetuatethemintheirworks.InordertopandertotheWesterners’preconceivedimagesoftheEasterners,theyrepresenttheOrientalculturebyovergeneralization,oversimplification,exaggerationanddistortion.Admittedly,self-orientalizationrationalizesOrientalism.

　　ZhouNing周宁,ascholarofChineseimagestudy,hasmadeasystematicstudyandclassificationofself-orientalization.Hearguesthatself-orientalizationincludesthreelayers:firstly,itmeanstheOrientals’identificationwiththeOccident/OrientbinaryoppositionviewandEuropeancentrism,theOccidentals’thoughtstoviewtheworldintermsofbinaryopposition,theOccidentals’superioritybecausetheyareadvanced,civilizedandhumane,andtheirowninferioritybecausetheybelievethattheyare“Others”inculturalhegemony;secondly,intheworldordersystemruledbytheOccidentalcountries,theOrientalsbegintoconductself-criticismandculturaltransformation,andmakeeffortsto“De-orientalization”,whichincludestwoextremetendencies:oneistototallynegatetheirowntraditionandpreachwholesaleWesternization,theotheristobringtheEasterntraditionintoplayinWesternculturalhegemony,bothofwhichincluderesistantfactorsandidentificationfactors;thirdly,“De-orientalization”notonlyarchitectstherelationshipbetweentheOrientandtheOccident,butalsotherelationshipamongtheOrientalcountries,withtheprocessincludingOrientalizingeachotheramongtheOrientalcountries(中国形象7).Fromthisanalysis,wecanconcludethattheEasterncountriescanonlyidentifythemselvesintheWesternpolitical,economicandculturalhegemony;underthispre-condition,whetherto“preachwholesaleWesternization”orto“givetheirtraditionintofullplay”,theylosetheircapabilitytoindependentlyrepresentandconstructthemselves.

　　Scholarsathomeandabroadbegintorelatetranslationwithself-orientalization.Self-orientalizedtranslatorsusuallyadheretotheWesternreaders’

　　standpoint,respecttheWesternculture,ignoretheuniquevalueoftheEasternculture,andfeelcontemptuousofotheraspectsoftheEasternculture.Toalargedegree,translators’culturalattitudestowards5Introductionthesourcelanguagecultureandthetargetlanguagecultureinfluencetranslation,whichcanbereflectedintheselectionoftranslationtextsandadoptionoftranslationapproaches.InordertoconformtotheOccidentalreaders’preoccupiednotionsoftheOrient,self-orientalizedtranslators“feedthesebiasedrepresentationsbyproducingeithertouristicliteratureoronethatamplifiestheOrientalcontradictionsasimaginedbytheOccident”

　　(Jacquemond155).Inotherwords,self-orientalizedtranslatorstendtotranslatethetextswhichmanifestdefectsintheOrientals’characters,magnifytheprimitiveness,backwardnessandmysteriousnessintheOrientalculture,anddowngradetheimageoftheOrienttobarbariansinconformitywiththeOccidentalreaders’

　　horizonofexpectationandtheirprototypeimageoftheOrient.Asforthetranslationapproaches,self-orientalizedtranslatorstendtofollowtheprincipleofoneof“scientificaccuracy”intheirtranslationtorepresenta“complicatedOrient”(Jacquemond149).Inotherwords,self-orientalizedtranslatorsadopttheapproachofliteraltranslationtomagnifytheheterogeneity,femininityandcorruptibilityintheOrientalculture,whichcanserveasafoilandcontrasttotheOccidentalculturalprestige.Self-orientalizedtranslatorsalsoadoptthetranslationapproachoftranspositiontocatertotheWesternreaders’

　　habitualwayofexpressionandvaluesystem,andhighlightuniversalityoftheWesternculture,whichresultsinobliterationoftheuniquevalueoftheOrientalculture.Moreover,self-orientalizedtranslatorsadoptothertranslationapproachessuchasdeletion,additionandrewritingtodemonizetheimageoftheOrient,andconfirmrationalityandvalidityoftheWesternculture.TakeWilliamJones,arenownedtranslator,forexample.HeshowedcontemptfortheIndiancultureinhistranslationwiththehelpofintroductionandfootnotes,whichchangedEuropean’sideasaboutIndiaandreinforcedtheWesternculturalprestige.

　　Fromthepostcolonialperspectiveoftranslationstudies,thethesisintendstofigureoutcausesandmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translation.Whatwastheself-translationcontext?WhatwasZhangAiling’sculturalidentity?Whatwereself-translated?Howwereworkstranslated?Withthesequestionsinmindanduponcloseexamination,thethesisaimstoelaboratethatZhangAilingdisplayedself-orientalizationinherself-translationworksselectionandadoptionoftranslationapproaches,whichareconstrainedandconditionedbypowerdifferentials,thepatronageandself-orientalizationin6Introductionherculturalidentity.Self-translationisdefinedbyAutonPopovi?as“thetranslationofanoriginalworkintoanotherlanguagebytheauthorhimself”(19).Inotherwords,self-translationmeansthatanauthortranslateshisorherownworksintoanotherlanguage.However,somescholarsdoubtwhetherself-translationistranslation,becauseself-translationinvolvesalotofcreationandrewriting,whichchallengestheauthenticityofthesourcetext.SusanBassnettpointsoutthat“onesolutiontothedilemmaistodenytheexistenceofanyoriginaltext,andconsequentlytodenytheexistenceofatranslation,assuminginsteadthatwehavetwoversionsofthesametextthatsimplyhappentohavebeenwrittenbythesameauthorindifferentlanguages”

　　(“Translation”

　　30).Admittedly,self-translatorsmakesomeadjustmentsandalterationstothesourcetexts.Overall,self-translatorsassumetheroleofatranslatorinthetranslatingprocess.Therefore,thethesisdeemsself-translationtranslation.

　　Therearesomeself-translatorsinChineseliteraryhistory.Takeforexample,XiaoQian萧乾self-translatedLizi《栗子》intoChestnutsandLixiaJi《篱下集》intoUndertheFence;BianZhilin卞之琳self-translatedhispoemsintoEnglishwhichareincludedinModernChinesePoetry;BaiXianyong白先勇self-translatedTaibeiRen《台北人》

　　intoTaipeiPeople,YouyuanJingmeng《游园惊梦》intoWanderingintheGarden,WakingfromaDream,AnAccountofZhexian《谪仙记》intoLiTung:aChineseGirlinNewYork,etc..

　　ZhangAilingisaself-translator.Thethesisfocusesonherinfluentialself-translatedworks:TheNakedEarth,“Shame,Amah!”,“TheGoldenCangue”,TheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorth.ItmustbemadeclearthatalthoughTheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthwereoriginallywritteninEnglishandthenself-translatedintoChinese,theEnglishversionsinevitablyinvolvetranslation.Inthefirstplace,thenarrativeofChinesestoriesinEnglishisboundtotranslateChineseculture-specificitemsforthereceivingaudience.Infact,ChineseAmericanliterature“undertakesamissionofculturaltranslation”,andexperiencesbothlanguageandculturaltransmissionfromChinatoAmerica(王光林,华裔作家148).Then,characters,plotsandscenesinhernovels,whichwereintendedtosimulatethereallifeinChina,couldalsobeconsideredtobetranslationofrealityintofabrication.ItisbeyonddoubtthattranslationisanessentialpartofpresentingChinesethoughtsandconceptsinEnglish.Besides,bothtranslationandwritingfromamarginalizedIntroductionculturetoahegemoniccultureisideologicallyloaded.Because“noteverythinginapost-colonialculturalmetatextcanbetransposedinaliteraryformat”,choicesmustbemadeinconsiderationof“theideologicalpressureandcensure-bothimplicitandexplicitpoliticalconstraint-thattheyaresubjecttowithintheirnativeframework”

　　(Tymoczko23).Forthesereasons,ChinesecultureandtraditioninTheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthcouldbeconsideredastranslationfromtheChinesemetatextsintoEnglish.SubsequentlyitwasZhangAilingwhoback-translatedthesetwoworksfromEnglishintoChinese.Becausethewriteristhesamepersonasthetranslator,wecouldassumethattheself-translatedChineseversionsarethesameastheChinesemetatexts.Forthesakeoftheconvenienceofanalysis,thethesistakestheChineseversionsasthesourcetextsandtheEnglishversionsasthetargettexts.AdescriptivemethodisconductedtodoresearchofZhangAiling’sself-translatedworkswiththepurposesofanalyzingthesocial-culturalandhistoricalcontextofherself-translation,explainingwhysheself-translatedthetextsandhowshetranslatedthemfromthepostcolonialperspective,andsupportingthemainideasofthethesisbyusingsomeconvincingexamplestoillustrateself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworks.Byexaminingthesocial-historicalandculturalcontextofZhangAiling’sself-translation,thethesispointsoutthatherself-translationwasconstrainedbypowerimbalanceandthepatronage.ByelaboratingheridentificationwithinferiorityofChinesecultureandsuperiorityoftheWesternculture,andherconstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”

　　gazeduponbytheWesternersinherworks,thethesisrevealsthatshedemonstratedself-orientalizationinherculturalidentityasatranslator,whichexertedagreatinfluenceonherself-translationworksselectionandadoptionoftranslationapproaches.Influencedbyinequalityofpowerrelations,patronageandculturalidentity,thethesiselaboratesthatZhangAilingtendedtoself-translatethetextswhichrepresentanegativeimageofChinesepeopleandadespoticalChina.Finally,thethesisanalyzesmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinherself-translationpurposesandapproaches.Themaincontentsareasfollows:Introductionpartgivesageneralintroductiontotheresearch,includingliteraturereview,theoreticalframework,researchquestions,objectivesandsignificanceoftheresearch.ChapterOneconcernstherelationshipbetweenZhangAilingIntroductionandself-orientalizationintermsofsocial-culturalandhistoricalfactors,familybackgroundandlifeexperiences,andexplorestheconnectionbetweenself-orientalizationandherself-translation.ChapterTwodiscussesherself-translationtextselectioninfluencedbyself-orientalization.ChapterThreeanalyzesmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinherself-translatedworkswithexplorationintoself-translationpurposesandapproaches.Inconclusion,itdealswiththecontributionofthethesis,limitationsofthepresentstudy,andrecommendationsforfurtherresearch.

　　Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1Chapter1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　Translationresultsfromaseriesofchoices,suchaswhatshouldbetranslated,forwhomworksshouldbetranslated,howworksshouldbetranslatedandsoon.However,translatorscannotmaketheirjudgmentsneutrallyandtheirchoicesindependently,becausetheyare“constrainedinmanyways:bytheirownideology;bytheirfeelingsofsuperiorityorinferioritytowardsthelanguageinwhichtheyarewritingthetextbeingtranslated;bytheprevailingpoeticalrulesatthattime;bytheverylanguageinwhichthetextstheyaretranslatingiswritten;bywhatthedominantinstitutionsandideologyexpectofthem”

　　(álvarezandVidal6).Wemustbealerttothecircumstancesunderwhichchoicesaremade,whichcanbothbroadenthescopeofthetranslationstudiesanddeepenthecomprehensionoffactorsinvolvedintranslation.Thethesisanalysesthesocialcontextwhichcontributestoself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sculturalidentityasatranslator,followedbyelaborationofmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinherculturalidentity.1.1TheSocialContextforZhangAiling’sSelf-orientalization

　　Self-orientalizationmeanstheOrientals’attitudestowardstheirnativecountries.TheOrientalshereespeciallyrefertopeoplewhoarebornintheEastbutliveintheWest.ZhangAilingwasborninShanghaianddwelledinAmericafor40years.AssimilatingknowledgefromboththeEasternandtheWesterncultures,sheconstructedherownuniqueculturalidentity.Theuniqueculturalidentityenabledhertowinanadvantageofacquaintancewiththetwocultures.Therefore,shecouldnotonlytransmitChineseculturetoAmerica,butalsocarryoverAmericanculturetoChina.However,becauseofpowerimbalancebetweenChinaandtheWest,shelostdiscourselibertyandmanifestedself-orientalizationinherEnglishcreationandself-translation.Inaddition,theinfluenceofpatronageistheotherexteriorcausewhichmadeherconformtothemainstreamideologyinAmericaandtheWesterners’

　　aestheticappeal.

　　Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.11.1.1TheConstraintsofPowerImbalance

　　AccordingtoSusanBassnettandHarishTrivedi,translationisnotaninnocent,transparentactivitybutishighlychargedwithsignificanceateverystage;itrarely,ifever,involvesarelationshipofequalitybetweentexts,authorsorsystems”(2).Inotherwords,translatorsencounterpowerimbalanceorpowerdifferentialsbetweenadominantcultureandamarginalizedculture.Translationbecomesabattlefieldthattheparticipantsfightforpowerdiscourse.Inthepostcolonialcontext,translationisaproductofunequaldialoguesbetweenahegemoniclanguagecultureandadominatedlanguageculture,andatoolforperpetuationofculturalinfiltrationandrationalizationofculturalinvasion.Weshouldshowconcerntopowermanipulationhiddenintranslationbetweentwodifferentcultures,realizethattherehasneverexistedgenuinelyequalcommunicationbetweentwodifferentcultures.ZhangAilingwasbornon30September1920,ayearafterthewell-knownMayFourthMovement.Intheearlytwentiethcentury,China,afeeblesemi-colony,wasinanunfavorablepositioninthepoliticalandeconomicconfrontationwiththeWest.IntheWesterners’view,Chinesepeoplewere“unethical”,“depraved”and“undesirable”(周宁,西方看中国646).InthefaceoftheWesterners’negationandcontempt,Chinesepeoplelosttheirconfidenceinthemselvesandwereincapableofrepresentingthemselves.Toacertaindegree,therecentandmodernChinesehistoryishistoryofbloodandtears,andhistoryofhumiliation.TheWesternpowerslaunchedmilitaryinvasionuponChinainsuccession.Basedontheiradvancedweaponandmassiveeconomicandmilitarypower,thesecountriesencroachedonChineseterritory,interferedinChineseinternalaffairsandsuppressedChinesepeople.InordertocompletelysuppressChinesepeople,theWesternpowersmanipulatednotonlyChinesegovernmentbutalsoChineseforeignpolicy.TheyturnedChinesepeopleinpowerintotheirpuppets.Inadditiontomilitaryandpoliticalaggression,theWesternpowerscontrolledChinesepeoplethrougheconomicplunder.TheyexploitedunfairtreatieswhichweresignedwithQingGovernmenttodumpmerchandiseandplunderresources.Meanwhile,theWesternpowersadoptedthepolicyofculturalinfiltrationintoChinawiththepurposesofpropagatingtheWesternvalueandbeliefsystems,manipulatingChinesepeople’sminds,anddestroyingChinesenationalself-respectandself-confidence.

　　TheworstistheJapaneseAggressiveWaragainstChina.In1937JapaninvadedChina11Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1infullscale.ThenGermanyandSlovakiainvadedPolandandsubsequentlyFrancedeclaredwaronGermany,whichmarkedthebeginningoftheSecondWorldWar.InDecember1941,JapanattackedAmericaonPearlHarbor.Therefore,Americatookpartinthewarimmediately.ThewarendedwiththedefeatofJapanandGermany.

　　TheSecondWorldWarchangedthesocial,politicalandeconomicordersystem.Afterthewar,theUnitedStatesacquiredimmensepolitical,military,economicandculturalpower,andbecameoneofthemostpowerfulcountriesintheworld.TheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionbecamerivals.Theydifferedgreatlyinissuessuchastheconfigurationoftheworld,humanrights,philosophyandperceptions,whichledtotheColdWar.TheColdWarwasaperiodofconflictandtensionbetweentheWesternpowersandtheCommunistWorld.Theywereactuallyatwar,althoughtherewasnodirectmilitaryfightingbetweenthesetwocountries.ThegeopoliticaltensionbetweentheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnionwasmanifestedintechnologicalcompetition,spacerace,rivalryatsportsevents,espionageandpropaganda.AmericafearedthattheemergencyoftheCommunistWorldwouldinfiltrateintoAmericanculture.In1947theAmericanpresidentHarryS.TrumanwasadvisedtotakemeasurestocountertheSovietUnion’spolitical-military-ideologicalinfluenceupontheWesternpowers.Therefore,theTrumanAdministrationenunciatedtheanti-communistdoctrine,namelythepolicyofcontainment,toblocktheexpansionofCommunism.

　　ChinagotinvolvedintheColdWarandwasonthesideoftheSovietUnion.ShockedbytheChineseCommunistcontrolofMainlandChina,theAmericangovernmentexpandedtheanti-communismpolicyintoChina.Inordertoensuresecurity,Americaspreadbeliefs,valuesystem,attitudes,perceptionsandtheColdWardoctrinestoChina.ItcanbeseenthatthemainstreamideologyinAmericaintheColdWarperiodwasanti-communismandadvocacyofAmericanphilosophyandconventions.

　　Itisworthmentioningthatweneedtoclarifythemeaningofideologyinthethesisbecausethedefinitionsofitarevariousandambiguous.Theword“ideology”wascoinedbyCountDestuttdeTracyinthelate18th

　　centurytodefinethebasisofpublicopinionsandcommonsense.Ideologyisusuallytakeninasenselimitedtothepoliticalsphere,whichmeansasetofideasandprinciplesthatexplainhowthesocietyshouldwork.However,scholarsinthefieldoflanguage-relatedculturalandtranslationstudiesoftentendtoextend12Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1theconceptofideologybeyondthepoliticalsphereanddefineitinaratherpoliticallyneutralizedsenseas“thatgrillworkofform,conventionandbeliefwhichordersouractions”

　　(Lefevere16).Inotherwords,ideologyisnotonlyasystemofvaluesandideaswhichlaythefoundationsofpoliticsandeconomy,butalsoasetofopinionsandassumptionswhicharesharedbyaspecificcommunityandexercisegreatinfluencesonwordsanddeeds.Asforthemainstreamideology,itisasystematicsetofconventionsandnormswhichareheldbytherulingclassandenjoythedominantplace.Inthethesis,ideologyistakeninabroadsense,anditincludesthesocialthoughtandtheindividual’sconsciousness.

　　Constrainedbythemainstreamideology,translatorsusuallyacceptitandcatertoitintheirworks.Therefore,confinedbytheprevailingAmericanrepresentationsofChinesesocietyandculture,dominantAmericanaestheticappealandmainstreamideologicalvalues,ZhangAilingselectivelytranslatedherChineseworksintoEnglish,whichincludesTheNakedEarth,“Shame,Amah!”,“TheGoldenCangue”,andwroteTheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthinEnglish.ConditionedbyinequalityofrelationsbetweenChinaandAmerica,herEnglishcreationandself-translationstressesthestagnation,backwardness,decadenceanddespotisminChinesecultureandsocietyinaccordancewiththemainstreamideologyinAmerica,whichclearlyindicatesself-orientalizationinherculturalidentityasatranslator.1.1.2TheInfluenceofPatronage

　　IfpowerimbalancebetweenChinaandAmericaisoneofthetwoexteriorcauseswhichresultinself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sculturalidentityasatranslator,theinfluenceofpatronageistheotherone.InAndré

　　Lefevere’swords,patronageis“somethinglikethepowers(persons,institutions)thatcanfurtherorhinderthereading,writing,andrewritingofliterature”(15).Patronageusuallyassumestheformofapowerfulpersonorgroupssuchasuniversities,politicalparties,publishinghouses,themediaandgrantingagencies.Recentresearchsuggeststhatpatronageinfluencestheselectionoftranslationtext,thechoiceoftranslationstrategiesandthecanonizationofworks.Itsmightypoweroriginatesfromthreefactors,namelyitsideologicalconstraintwhichrestrainstheparametersofwhatischosentobetranslated,paymentofferedintheformofemolument,remunerationorroyalty,whichisamotivatorfortranslatorstotranslate,andhighsocialstatusbestowedbyitsapprovaland13Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.1recognition.Patronagecanfacilitateandhelpthepublicationandreceptionoftranslationifitisconsideredasvaluableandsatisfactory;theycanblockandprohibitthepublicationandreceptionoftranslationifitisdeemedasworthlessandunsatisfactory.Inordertogetworkspublishedandwellreceivedinthepublishingmarket,translatorshavetostaywithintheconstraintssetbythepatronage.Patronagestandsforthemainstreamideology,whichisadeterminantfactorintranslation.Patronagetakesinitiativetofurthertranslatingthetextswhichconformtoitsideology,andpreventstranslatingthetextswhichruncountertoitsideology.ZhangAilingwaspatronizedbyU.S.I.A,animportantorganizationestablishedbyAmericansinHongKongduringtheColdWarperiodtosabotagethesupportingresourcesofChineseCommunistPartyinMainlandChina,andwinsupportforandunderstandingofAmericanvalue,policyandbelief.SponsoredbytheAmericangovernment,U.S.I.AprovidedhighpaymentsforliteraturetalentswhohadagoodcommandofbothChineseandEnglishtoengageintranslatingandwriting,whichservedthepurposesofenticinganti-communismsentimentandactionaswellaspropagatingAmericanfreedomanddemocracy.

　　Atthattime,U.S.I.AneededZhangAilingtoengageintranslationandwriting,andsheneededthepaymenttosurvive,sosheprovidedserviceforU.S.I.A.ShetranslatedTheOldManandtheSea,“TheLegendofSleepyHollow”

　　andTheYearlingintoChinesesuccessively.However,shewasnotinterestedinAmericanliteratureworksselectedbyU.S.I.A.Inordertomakealiving,sheforcedherselftotranslate.Shesaidthat“translatingnovelswrittenbyWashingtonIrvingseemstospeaktoapersonwhomIdonotlike,resignedlyandinescapably”,andspokecandidlythat“eveniftheworksareaboutthedentist,Iwillsummonupcouragetotranslate”(陈子善35).Itissafeforustoconcludethatincomewasherdominantmotivefortranslating.

　　UnderthecontractwithU.S.I.A,ZhangAilingwasconstrainedbythemainstreamideologyandOrientalisminAmerica.Therefore,herself-translatedworksrepresentChinatobeinastateofbarbarity,despotismandbackwardness,whichservesasafoilforthegreatnessandadvancementoftheWesternculture.Consequently,hertranslationreinforcestheWesterners’prototypeimagesofChinaandrationalizesculturalinvasioninflicteduponChinabyAmerica,whichclearlysuggestshertendencytoself-orientalization.14Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.21.2ManifestationsofSelf-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentity

　　Thispartproceedstotheanalysisofmanifestationsofself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sculturalidentity.Asforthedefinitionofculturalidentity,JosianeHamersandMichelBlancarguethat“theintegrationofthecomplexconfigurationthatiscultureintotheindividual’spersonalityconstituteshisculturalidentity”

　　(116).Theystressthattheindividual’sculturalidentityresultsfromsocialization,whichinvolvestheinteractionbetweentheindividualsandsociety.Itisadynamicmechanismwhichbeginsanddevelopsfromchildhood,influencedbymanyfactorssuchasgender,race,class,language,familialbackground,educationstatusandthesocial-historicalenvironment.Therefore,thecourseofconstructingculturalidentityisadynamicprocessofsocializationandacculturation.AssimilatingknowledgefromboththeEasternandtheWesterncultures,ZhangAilingconstructedheruniqueculturalidentity.Manyfactorscontributedtotheaccumulationofherculturalidentity,suchastheinfluencesshegotfromherparents,thelanguagessheacquired,theeducationandtrainingshereceived,thelifestyleshechosetoliveandhertwomarriages,thefirstmarriagewithHuLanchengandthesecondmarriagewithFerdinandReyher(anAmericanplaywright),etc.Whenweexpoundculturalidentity,weusuallyregarditasanidentitychoicemadebetweenahegemoniccultureandaminorityculture,whichleadstoenormousmentaltorture,personalexperiencesofanxietyandexpectation,agonyandjoy.Thiscanbeviewedashybridity,abuzzwordinthepostcolonialcontext,whichgenerallyreferstoablendoramixtureofdifferentnationalities,cultures,languages,religionsandraces.HomiK.Bhabhamakesadetailedanalysisof“hybridity”inhisrepresentativeworkTheLocationofCulture,andstatesthat“hybridityisaproblematicofcolonialrepresentationandindividuationthatreversestheeffectsofthecolonialistdisavowal,sothatother‘denied’knowledgeenteruponthedominantdiscourseandestrangethebasisofitsauthority–

　　itsrulesofrecognition”

　　(114).

　　ZhangAilingisahybridoftheEasternandtheWesterncultures.Becauseofherhybridculturalidentity,shehadadoublevision:ontheonehand,sheactedasanativeinformantof15Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2Chineseculture;ontheotherhand,sheobservedChinesepeoplebystandardsderivedfromtheWesterncountries,andconstructedChinatobebackward,impoverished,superstitious,stupid,dictatorial,irrational,lackofsanitationstandardsanddemocracy.Overall,theWesterncultureenjoyedahigherpositioninhermindthanChineseculture.SheappliedforAmericannationalityinNovember1959,whichimplieshereffortstointegrateintoAmericancultureandidentificationwiththeWesternculturalhegemony.

　　1.2.1IdentificationwithInferiorityofChineseCultureandSuperiorityoftheWesternCultureConfrontedwithChinesecultureandtheWesternculture,ZhangAilingfeltcontemptfortheformer;bycontrast,sheappreciatedandmadegreateffortstointegrateintothelatter.SheidentifiedwiththebinaryoppositionviewoftheOrientandtheOccident,andheldtheviewthattheOrientisfeminine,degradedandcoward,whichcontrastssharplywiththemasculine,advancedandbraveOccident.Thiscanbeseenfromherperceptions,attitudesandbeliefs.ZhangAilingwasanaristocrat.HergreatgrandfatherwasLeeHongzhang李鸿章,whowasaprestigiouspoliticianinQingDynasty,andhergrandfatherwasZhangPeilun张佩伦,whowasbothacelebrityinthelateyearsofQingDynastyandascholarinthefieldofChineseclassics.DespitethedeclineofQingDynasty,herfamilycouldstilllivealifeofabundanceonfamilyproperty.HerfatherZhangTingzhong

　　张廷众,concubineindulgentandopium-ridden,waswell-educatedinChineseclassics.Incompletecontradictiontoherfather,hermotherHuangSuqiong黄素琼,wasanemancipatedandWesternizedwoman,braveenoughtogoabroad,dooilpainting,goskiing,getdivorced,haveAmericanloversanddieabroadonherliberatedbounded-feet.Toacertaindegree,herfathersymbolizedChinesecultureandhermotherrepresentedtheWesternculture.ZhangAilinglookeddownuponwhatherfatherembodied,anugly,evil,immoralandcowardChinese;andappreciatedwhathermotherrepresented,abeautiful,benevolent,progressiveandcourageousWesterner.Inherreminiscenceofherchildhoodin

　　TheGuiltlessWordsofaChild(《童言无忌》),shedepreciatedeverythinginherfather’sconservativehome,“opium,theoldtutorwhotaughtmybrothertowritecompositionslike‘AnExpositionontheFirstHanEmperor’,16Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2chapter-stylednovels,astheywerelaggardanddust-laden”,②

　　bycontrast,“Ihadadeeploveforeverythinginmymother’shomeandfoundgreatconsolationinmodernfacilitieslikethegasstove”.③

　　BothZhangAiling’sfatherandmotherexercisedgreatinfluencesonhereducationintheirownways.Arrangedbyherfather,shereceivedtraditionalboudoireducation,learntclassicalChinesepoetryandprose.ImmersedintraditionalChineseculture,shehadaprofoundknowledgeofChinesecultureandgotmuchencouragementandinspirationfromherfather,assherecalledthat“myfatherwassoproud

　　ofmyliteraturetalentthathemotivatedmetolearntocomposepoems”.④

　　However,

　　hermotherdifferedgreatlyfromherfatherintheissueofhereducation.ZhangAiling’smotherinsistedthatZhangAilingshouldstudyEnglish,Western-stylepaintingandpiano,andwereeagertopassonheremancipatedvaluesandbeliefstoherdaughter,whichwasopposedbyZhangAiling’sfather,whodidnotfavorWesterneducationforhisdaughter.ZhangAiling’smothertookhertoanelementaryschoolwhenshewastenyearsoldandenabledhertoreceiveeducationinSt.Maria,agirls’CatholichighschoolsetupbyAmericanandBritishmissionaries,wheremorethanhalfofthecoursesweretaughtbyAmericanandBritishteachers.Duringthatperiod,shereceivedformaleducationinChineseandWesternliterature.MostbiographiessuggestthatZhangAilinglovedtoreadADreamofRedMansions

　　(《红楼梦》)andnovelswrittenbySomerthetMaugham.MaughamshowsspecialinterestindealingwiththerelationshipbetweentheWestandtheEastfromtheperspectiveofOrientalism,anddepictstheimageofafeminine,submissiveandbackwardChina.InfluencedbyMaugham,ZhangAilingalsodelineatesChinafromtheangleofOrientalism.

　　Aftergraduationfromhighschool,ZhangAilinghadseriousaspirationsforherself,“IwanttobemorefamousthanLinYütang,Idesiretowearthefanciestclothesintheworld,Iplantotravelallovertheworld,IhaveastrongwishtohaveahouseinShanghaiwhichcanbecalledmyownandliveanenjoyableandsimplelife”.⑤Obviously,LinYütangwasanidolwhomZhangAilingwantedtopursue.AsadisseminatorofChineseculturetotheWesternersandananti-communistwriterwholivedinAmericaformorethanthirtyyears,LinYütangenjoyedgreatpopularityandsuccessinAmericaforhisEnglishwritingandtranslationtargetedattheWesternreaders.Hissuccessconsistedinhisdelineationofthecomfortable1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2andleisuredlifelivedbyChinesepeople.InordertopandertotheWesterners’imaginationaboutChinesepeople,hedemonstratedself-orientalizationinhistranslation,consciouslyorunconsciously,whichisexpoundedbyWangShaoti王少娣

　　(2009).InspiredbyLinYütang’ssuccess,ZhangAilingnotonlygainedgreatconfidence,butalsogotmuchenlightenmentandrevelation.InZhangAiling’srecollection,hermotherreturnedfromabroadtodiscussheroverseasstudyplanafterhergraduationfromhighschool,whichenragedherfathertosuchadegreethatheimprisonedherforsixmonths.Afterwards,shemanagedtoescapefromherfather’sphysicalandintellectualconfinement,whichmeanshertotalrejectionoftheblindandbrutaloldChina,andherembraceofthebrightandniceNewWorld.Becauseofherexcellentacademicachievements,ZhangAilinggotadmissiontoLondonUniversity.However,duetotheSecondWorldWar,shehadtoreceivecolonialeducationatHongKongUniversity.Theperiodfrom1939to1941signifiedZhangAiling’sturntotheWest,becausethreeyearsinHongKongshemostlywroteandreadinEnglish.OwingtoJapaneseinvasionanddominationofHongKong,ZhangAilinghadtoabandonherstudyandreturntoShanghai.

　　InJulyof1953,ZhangAilingleftMainlandChinaforHongKongonthepleaofresuminginterruptedstudiesinHongKongUniversity.Luckilyenough,shefoundajobasatranslatorandwriterwithU.S.I.A,andreceivedhandsomeremunerationsforherworks.Shegot1000USdollarsinadvanceforthepublicationofTheRice-SproutSong.Afteritspublication,goodreviewsbyTimesWeekly,HeraldTribuneandNewYorkTimesfloodedin.ThesuccessenabledhertohaveastrongbeliefinhergoodcommandofEnglishandgreatlyinspiredhertopursueherdreamofbecomingageniusinAmerica.InOctoberof1955,shehurriedlysetsailforAmerica,andlivedtherewithouteverreturningtoShanghai.Uponherarrival,shefeltgreataffectionforNewYork,whichisrevealedfromherletterstoSongQi宋淇.ShebelievedthatNewYorkresembledShanghai,whiletheformerwasmellowerandthelatterwasflashier.

　　Fromtheaboveanalysis,itcanbeseenthatZhangAilingidentifiedwiththebinaryoppositionviewoftheOrientandtheOccident.TheOccidentalculturesenjoyedasuperiorpositiontotheOrientalculturesinhermind,whichwasdemonstratedinhereagernesstoget1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2integratedintotheWesterncultureandhertendencytodespiseChineseculture.However,itmustbemadeclearthattheself-orientalizationwasnotaculturalidentitychoicemadebyZhangAilingvoluntarily;itwasaconsciousorunconsciousculturalattitudedeterminedbysubjectivecauses,suchasfamilialbackground,educationbackground,creationactivitiesandlifeexperiences,andobjectivecauses,suchaspowerdifferentialsandthepatronage.

　　1.2.2ConstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”inHerWorks

　　ZhangAilingnotonlyidentifiedwithinferiorityofChinesecultureandsuperiorityoftheWesternculture,butalsoconstructedChinaastheOriental“Other”

　　gazeduponbytheWesternersinherworkstoridiculeChina.“Gaze”,anotherkeywordinthepostcolonialstudies,originallymeanslookinglongandattentively,however,inthepostcolonialcontextitreferstoadominantcultureoverlookingaminoritycultureinasuperiorposition.AccordingtoSaid,theOccidentgetsmuch“bizarrejouissance”

　　fromgazingupontheOrientinacommandingposition(103).SotherelationshipbetweentheOccidentandtheOrientis“gaze”and“beinggazed”.Withprejudicedviews,theWesternerswatchtheEasttoseekfornoveltyandoddity,andproducearemotelyexotic“Other”

　　inaccordancewiththeirimaginationandexpectation.InordertogetintegratedintothemainstreamdiscourseinAmerica,ZhangAilingtriedherbesttogetridoftheshackleofherChineseidentityandChineseculture,andadoptedastandpointoftheWesternersintermsofthoughtpatternsandliteraturecreation,consciouslyorunconsciously.SheobservedChinesepeople,examinedChineseculture,andrepresentedamysterious,abnormalandprimitiveimageofChinagazeduponbytheWesternersinherworkstosatisfytheWesterners’voyeuristicdesire.

　　ZhangAilingfounditamusingtojudgeChinabyWesternstandards,justassheoncementionedthat“itisinterestingtolookatChinainthesamewayforeignerswatchBeijingOpera[...].Jumbled,irritating,mysteriousandamusing”.⑥

　　FromtheperspectiveoftheWesterners,sheviewedChineseinasuperiorpositionandfoundgreatamusementingazinguponChinesepeople.EvenChinesechildren,thefuturemastersofChina,becamedollstotoywith:ThereisaforeigngirlwhohasbeeninChinafortwoyears.[...]However,shehasspecialappreciationofChinesechildren,saying“howbeautifultheyare,especiallyinwinter,whentheyareincotton-paddedjackets,cotton-padded1Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2trousers,cotton-paddedrobesandcotton-paddedoveralls.Theyareshortandfat,toddlingandstaggering.TheOrientalsarebornwithgoodeyes,whichespeciallyshowthemagicoftheupwardslantingeyesintheirtinyyellowfaces.ThisreallymakesmecherishthehopetotakeonebacktoEurope.⑦

　　AstotheWesterners,theirhegemonyisnotonlyculturallydetermined,butalsoraciallydetermined.Theydividepeopleintothreemarkedcategories,namelythewhite,theyellowandtheblack.Thewhitearebynaturesuperiortotheyellowandtheblack,whoaredowngradedtosavageanddegenerate.“Inaninterestingshiftofmetaphorstheblackandyellowraceswerethecottonandwoolinthefabricofcivilizationrequiringtheadmixtureofthesilkofthewhiteracetomakethemsupple”

　　(Jones79),whichexplainswhyChinesechildrenaredescribedtobeincotton-paddedjackets,cotton-paddedtrousers,cotton-paddedrobes,andcotton-paddedoverallsintheabovequotation.Moreover,theWesternersareoftenamusedbytheuniformityoffacialfeaturesofChinesepeople:blackhair,trianglefaces,flatnoses,smallandupwardslantingeyes,yellowskin,wideandbonyforeheads,whichexplainswhytheforeigngirlintheabovequotationexpectstotakeaChinesechildbacktoEurope.TheuniformityoffacialfeaturesofChinesechildrenindicatesthattheWesternersoversimplifyandmarginalizetheimagesofChinese.InadditiontoridiculeChinesechildren,ZhangAilingnarratedChinesewomen

　　astheOriental“Other”gazeduponbytheOccidentalsorevenfakeforeigners.T’ungShih-fang童世舫in“TheGoldenCangue”

　　wasanorthernerwhohadreturnedfromGermany.HewasarrangedtohaveablinddatewithCh’ang-an长安.Shewasdressedup“tolooklikethecelestialmaidenscatteringflowers”

　　inthe“foreigner”

　　T’ungShih-fang’spresence(Chang,“TheGoldenCangue”178).Shebecamespeechless,believedthatshecametobewatched,andfeltthat“herbodywasaltogethersuperfluousandcouldaswellbeshrunkinsizeandputawayifsheknewhowtodothis”

　　(Chang,“TheGoldenCangue”

　　180).Becauseofhermother’sopposition,shebrokeoffamarriagecontractwithhim.Afterthattheymadefriendswitheachother,andexchangedthoughts.Ch’ang-an’sna?vetéamusedT’ungShih-fang,whofoundherfunny.WatchedandjudgedbyT’ungShih-fang,Ch’ang-anbecameanornamenttoalistofancient,amusingandmysteriousChineseobjects.

　　Besides,shedescribedeffeminateChinesemenfromtheperspectiveoftheWesterners2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sCulturalIdentityasaTranslator

　　1.2toserveasafoiltothegreatnessoftheWesterners.Chinesemenwerepresentedasmentallyandphysicallydisabled,whichaccordedwiththeWesterners’preconceivedthoughtsofChinesemaleimage:weakandimpotent,takingopiuminbedsengravedwithdragonsandphoenixes.Bycontrast,Westernmaleswereconstructedastheelegantandwell-educatedknights,attackingtheprimitiveOrientalcountries,plunderingtheOrientalwealthandsubjugatingtheOrientalwomen.

　　OldrelicsintraditionalChineseculturewerealsointentionallypresentedtowintheWesterners’favorandsatisfytheirimaginationaboutanexoticOrient.Inthefiction“Shame,Amah!”,ZhangAilingnarratedthat“therewerePekingoperamasksonthewallandaframednudepaintingwhichhadbeenawhiskeyadvertisement,Pekingrugs,awastebasketmadeoutofalantern,anestofcarvedrosewoodtables”(100).Theroom,whichwasdecoratedbytinyobjectsofOrientalflavor,becametheWesterners’imaginaryChina.Intheireyes,Chinawasanenchantingplacewithmysteryandexoticflavor,whicharousedtheirdesiretoconquerandseize.

　　ItcanbeseenthatZhangAilingdemonstratedself-orientalizationinherculturalidentityintermsofheridentificationwiththebinaryoppositionviewoftheworldandherconstructionofChinaastheOriental“Other”gazeduponbytheWesterners.Culturalidentitymouldsthethoughtsandactions,becauseoneperceivesthingsfromacertainperspectiveandbehavesaccordingtoacertainsystemofideasandattitudes,whichareallstemmedfromculturalidentity.Translators’culturalidentityreflectshisorherculturalattitudetowardsthesourcelanguagecultureandthetargetlanguageculture,whichinfluenceshisorherselectionofsourcetextsandadoptionoftranslationapproaches,because“thereisanunspokentextinter-contextuallyhiddenintranslationdiscourse,thistexthasaninter-contextuallycompatiblerelationshipwithculturalidentifyandculturalattitude”.⑧

　　Therefore,self-orientalizationinculturalidentityinfluencedZhangAiling’sself-translationworksselectionandadoptionoftranslationapproaches.HerSelf-translatedworksconformtotheWesterners’prototypeimageofChinesepeople,distortandmagnifythebackwardness,filth,despotismandsuperstitioninChineseculture,andconfirmuniversalityandcorrectnessoftheWesterncultures.21Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelectionChapter2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelectionAccordingtoRobinson,“authorsinadominatedculturewhodreamofreachingalargeaudiencewilltendtowritefortranslationintoahegemoniclanguage,andthiswillrequiresomedegreeofcompliancewithstereotypes”(32).AsatranslatorfromChinawhocherishedthedreamofbeingreceivedbyalargegroupofreadersinAmerica,ZhangAilingtendedtowritefortranslationintoEnglish.Therefore,mostofthesourcetextsofherChinese-Englishtranslationwereherownworks.Asweallknow,ZhangAiling,whoexcelledinstylisticinventivenessandpsychologicalsophistication,wasanoriginalwriterinmodernChineseliteraryhistory.Sheproducedmanyworks.Wecannothelpraisingthequestionwhyshechosetoself-translateTheNakedEarth,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”,“TheGoldenCangue”,TheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorthratherthanherotherworks.Toanswerthequestion,letusfirstlyintroduceherChineseworks.ZhangAiling’sworksshowdiversesubjectmatters.In1932shepublished“TheBull”

　　(牛)and“FarewelltotheConcubine”(霸王别姬),whichshowherfemaleconsciousnessandmoderninterpretation.HerothershortstoriesincludeRomances,whichisacollectionofsentimentalstoriesinfluencedbyMandarinDucksandButterfliesSchoolofpopularromance,“LingeringLove”(留情),whichdealswiththesubjectofmarriage,“YouthfulYears”(年轻的时候),whichisaboutloveaffairs,“Jasmine

　　Tea”(茉莉香片),whichconcernsaboutself-identity,“LoveinaFallenCity”(倾城之恋),whichnarrateswar-timeHongKong,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”,whichtellsastoryaboutonedaylifeofaChinesefemaleservantinShanghai,“Blockade”(封锁),whichconcernswiththevanityofhumanheart,“AloeswoodAshes:theFirstBurning”(沉香屑第一炉香),whichexpressesasenseofemptinessanddespairandsoon.

　　ZhangAilingwrotenotonlyshortstoriesbutalsonovels.HernovelsincludeInterlockingRings(《连环套》),whichdescribesthephenomenonofcohabitation,SoMuchRegret(《多少恨》),whichisbasedonherloverelationshipwithHuLancheng,LittleAi(《小艾》),whichdelineatesamaidservant’soptimisticbeliefinCommunisttheorytoavoid22Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1criticismfromtheLeftWingwriters,EighteenSpring(《十八春》),whichisabouttheseparationsandreunionsofthemaleprotagonistandthefemaleprotagonistovereighteenyears,TheNakedEarthandTheRice-SproutSong,whicharetwoanti-communistnovels,TheRougeoftheNorth,whichisastoryofapervertedChinesewoman,etc..

　　Amongtheseshortstoriesandnovels,ZhangAilingselectivelyself-translatedTheNakedEarth,“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”,“TheGoldenCangue”,TheRice-SproutSongandTheRougeoftheNorth.ThemainstreamideologyinAmerica,culturalhegemony,theinfluenceofU.S.I.Aandself-orientalizationinherculturalidentitycontributetoherself-translationtextselection.Bycloseexaminationoftheself-translatedtexts,wefindthatshetendedtoselecttextsofpervertedChinesewomenand“castrated”Chinesemen,andtextsofautocraticChina.

　　2.1SelectionofTextsofPervertedChineseWomenand“Castrated”

　　ChineseMen

　　Translationtextselectionisnotneutralandfree;itisentangledwith“issuessuchaspower,ideology,institutionandmanipulation”(Lefevere39).Inordertomakesurethatthetranslatedversionscanbesuccessfullyreceivedbytheimpliedaudience,translatorstendtoselectthesourcetextswhichconformtoreligiousbelief,valuesystem,conventions,perceptions,morals,law,customs,habits,attitudesandassumptionsinthetargetlanguageculture,becauseiftranslatorsbiddefiancetothesecannonsinthetargetlanguageculture,thetranslatedversionswillberejectedbythepublishingmarketandtheimpliedaudience.Ifthesourcetextscanbasicallypandertothesecannonsinthetargetlanguageculture,meettheimpliedreaders’

　　aestheticdemands,andaccordwiththeirexpectationofandimaginationaboutthesourcelanguageculture,thenthetranslatedversionscanbewellreceivedandacceptedbythetargetreaders.

　　Thisthesisfocusesontranslationtextselection,especiallyself-translationtextselection,fromadominatedculturetoahegemonicculture,namelyfromtheEasttotheWest.TheEasthasalwaysbeeninexistenceasthe“Other”

　　oftheWest.TheWesterners’

　　preconceivednotionsandstereotypedimpressionsoftheEastaretheirculturalexpectationoftheEast.Therefore,sourcetextsintheEasternculture,whichareinconformitywiththeWesterners’

　　23Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1stereotypedimpressionsofabackwardandexoticOrient,aremorelikelytogettranslatedintotheWesternculture.Researchesfindoutthatahegemonicculturetendstotranslateworksfromadominatedculture,whichare“perceivedasdifficultandonlyofinteresttospecialists,chosenfortheirconformitytothehegemonicstereotypes,andoftenwrittenspecificallywithaneyetoconformingtothosestereotypesandthusgettingtranslatedandreadinthehegemonicculture”(Robinson32).Inotherwords,theOrientisdeemedasalien,strange,mysticanddifficultbytheOccidentals.Sourcetexts,whichareselectedtobetranslatedfromadominatedculturetoahegemonicculture,usuallyfitintheWesterners’

　　preconceivednotionsofanduncannyimaginationabouttheEast,thussatisfytheircuriosityaboutanexoticanderoticEast.Asisknowntoall,Englishisalanguageofpower,whichisestablishedonthebasisofBritishandAmericaneconomic,political,militaryandculturalstrength.TheinternationalpowerstatusofEnglishmakespeoplesensethatsuccessinEnglish-speakingcountriesmeanssuccessinthewholeworld.Underthecircumstances,self-orientalizedauthorsusuallywritefortranslationintoEnglish,conformtotheprevailingstereotypes,andcatertoWesternnormsandexpectations.

　　Asatranslatorinexile,ZhangAilingdreamedofoccupyinganimportantpositioninAmericanpublishingindustry.InordertocommandareadysaleinAmericanmarket,shehadtoselectsourcetextsandmakeinterpretationsinaccordancewiththeWesterners’ideologies,specificallytheirstereotypedimpressionsofabackwardandexoticChina,becauseideologyis“aconstraintonthechoiceanddevelopmentofbothformandsubjectmatter”(Lefevere16).ZhangAilingchosetoself-translate“TheGoldenCangue”,becauseitdescribesdebauchedandlong-braidedChinesemenwhosmokeopium,takeconcubines,playmah-jongandkeeptheiroldwaysoflivingaswellaspervertedChinesewomenwhoaredrivencrazybytheirscrambleforsexandmoney.SheentertainedthehopethatthestorywouldfitintheWesterners’prevailingstereotypedimpressionsofChinesepeople.

　　“TheGoldenCangue”

　　tellsastoryaboutawomanfromasesameoilshop,whogetsmarriedtoablindanddeformedsonofaneminentfamily.Sheusuallytalksabouthersexualannoyances,whichrevealsheranxiousness,bitterness,tensionandsexualstarvation.Sheattemptstohavesexualrelationshipswithherhusband’syoungerbrotherChi-tse季泽,butinvain.Chi-tsepromotesactressandplaysaroundwithwomen,buthedoesnotriskuniversal24Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1condemnationtoloveher.Heradulterousdesirefindsaventinpossessionofmoneyandherson.Consideringhersontobetheonlymaninherlife,sheindulgeshersonandignoresthefactthathegoesgambling.Inthefinalpartwhatisthemostrepellenttothereadersisthatthefemaleprotagonistisdeterminedtoliveamiserablelifeanddoesnotallowherchildrentohavejoyandhappiness.Shekeepshersonfromsleepingandcross-examinesabouthissexuallifewithhiswife.Worsestill,sheexploitseveryopportunitytovividlytellallthedetailsaboutherdaughter-in-law’ssecretstohumiliateherinpublic.Shemanipulatesherson’slifeandshouldbeblamedforherdaughter-in-law’sdeath.Alongsidethefemaleprotagonist’spsychologicalandmoraldegeneration,itiseasyforustoseethatZhangAilingconstructedanegativeimageofChinesewomen,malevolent,rancorous,villainousandembittered.

　　InadditiontosmeartheimageofChinesewomen,ZhangAilingsatirizedbad,absurdandcorruptqualitiesofChinesemen,andreversedthepatriarchalauthoritythroughmakingmalecharactersphysicallydeformedandspirituallyemasculated.In“TheGoldenCangue”,SecondMasterChiangsuffersfrom“softbone”andisparalyzed.Heaccompaniesthewholelifeofhiswifelikeashadow,lingeringoninasteadilyworseningcondition.Inreality,heisafather,ahusbandandason.Buttheyonlyexistinname.Hedefinitelyisnotamaninatraditionalsense.Itissafetoconcludethatheis“castrated”

　　physically.ThroughmakingSecondMasterChiangcorpse-like,ZhangAilingsatirizedthedistortedmalebody,anddeconstructedthemaleauthorityofthepatriarch.IfitissafetosaythatSecondMasterChiangcannotassumesocialrolesbecauseofhisdeformedbody,ThirdMasterChiangisphysicallywellandspirituallydisabled.Heisanimpotentconsumedbyopiumandwomen,doesnothingbutlivesonhisfamilyproperty.Henotonlytrieshisutmosttoobtainmoneyfromhismother,butalsoattemptstocheatthefemaleprotagonist’slovetogetmoney.Hislifevaluesandlifestylereflectthatheisobscene,depraved,useless,lackofheroismandmanhood.Ch’ang-bai长白,thesolesonofthefemaleprotagonist,inheritsdecadence,melancholy,weaknessandimpotencyfromhisfarthergenerations.Helacksenthusiasmandvigorforlife,sitsidleeveryday,yawnssluggishlyandsmokesopium.Bydeprivingaman’smanhood,ZhangAilingrepressedandbelittledthepatriarchalauthority.Inadditiontoordinarymalecharacters,otherauthoritativeandpowerfulmenwerealsofeminizedbytheauthor.NinthOldMaster,whorepresentsauthorityand25Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.1powerintheseniorpatriarch,wasjeeredathishomosexuality.Inbrief,Chinesemalesinthefictionwereeitherphysically“castrated”

　　ormentallydisabled,whichsubvertedthemaleauthority.ZhangAilingalsochosetoself-translate“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”

　　intoEnglish.Inthefiction,theChinesemanAhNée’shusbandwasrepresentedastimid,sexualimpotent,andlackofstrengthandmasculinespirit,whichwasinaccordancewiththeWesterners’preconceivedthoughtsofaweakanduselessChinesemaleimage.InsharpcontrasttothefeminizedChineseman,theforeignerMr.Schachtisapredator,whohassexualrelationshipswithallkindsofChinesewomenandcaststhemawaylikeapairofworn-outshoes,whichindicatestheWesternmales’intensesexualpotencyandmasculinity.ItissafetosaythatthisfictiondelineatesChinesemen“castrated”bytheOccidentalmalesandseductivelyenchantingChinesewomenwithsexualappeal.

　　ZhangAiling“castrated”

　　ChinesemalesbecausetheWesternerstendtofeminizeChinesemales.ThehistoricalrootofemasculatingChinesemencouldbetracedbacktotheinvasionandcolonizationofChinabyImperialistpowerswithstrongarmorandsharpweaponsinthe19thcentury.UnderthemanipulationofWesternhegemony,Chinesepeoplewereperceivedaseffeteandimpotent.Sincethelate19thcentury,Chinesepeople,especiallyfarmersincoastalareas,begantoemigratetoAmerica.Theywereilliterate,stucktooldcustomsandledalifeofisolationfromothersocialcommunities.Mostofthemwereindenturedlaborers,engaginginphysicalwork.ComparedwiththeOccidentalmales,Chinesemaleswereweakerinphysicalstrengthandendurancebecauseofadiscrepancyinconstitution.Otherswentintoserviceindustry,andtookupfeminizedjobssuchaskeepahousehold,docookinganddothelaundry.However,Chinesemaleswereabsentfromthedomainswhichdemonstratemalestrengthandpower.Therefore,theWesternersweredeemedtobemale,endowedwithcharacteristicssuchasreason,mighty,aggressivenessandnobility;onthecontrary,Chinesewereconstructedtobefemale,taggedbytemperamentssuchastenderness,weakness,primitivenessandpassiveness.BydeformationandemasculationofChinesemale’simage,ZhangAilingcouldenabletheWesternerstogetmuchsatisfaction,maintaintheirsenseofculturalsuperiority,andconsolidatethebeliefthattheyarethegreatsaviorwhocoulddominateandredeemChinafromdarknessandbarbarity.26Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.22.2SelectionofTextsofAutocraticChina

　　InAmericans’minds,autocraticChinameansthatChinesepeopleliveinhorror,andlosetheirfreedomaswellasdignityashumanbeingsundertheruleofChineseCommunistParty.ThefoundationofPeople’sRepublicofChinaleadstodisillusionofAmericandreamofattemptingtoreformChinabasedonanAmericanmodel,andtheemergenceofChinafillsAmericanswithangerandfrustration.AmericansbelievethatChineseCommunistPartyishypocriticalanddespotic,propagandizethealienationanddestructionofhumannatureofChinesepeopleunderthetyrannicalgovernance,andaredeterminedtorescueChinafromdespotismbyspreadingAmericanvaluesystemsanddemocracytoChina.Actually,infiltrationofAmericancultureintoChinaisculturalhegemony,whichmeanstheoverwhelmingdominationofWesternmainstreamideologythroughexportingWesternmodesofthinking,values,norms,beliefs,moralityandaestheticstandardstotheEasterncountriesinanon-violenceway,whichcanmaketheEasternpeopleunconsciouslyandimperceptiblyacceptculturalinvasion,thusrationalizeculturalmanipulation.CulturalhegemonyisbasedontheperceptionthatWesterncultureispowerful,superioranddominant,whiletheEasterncultureisweak,inferiorandperipheral.Therefore,theWesternersbelievethatWesternculturecaninfiltrateintoandwrestwiththeEasternculture.

　　AssumingthatWesternpoliticalsystemisdemocraticandadvanced,AmericanshaveunfairandprejudicedattitudestowardsChinesepoliticalsystem,whichisperceivedasautocraticandviolent.ConstrainedbythismainstreamideologyinAmerica,ZhangAilingslanderedChineseCommunistPartytorevealtheir“evil”

　　dominationinherworks.Itisworthmentioningthatherpersonalideologyalsocontributedtoherwritingandself-translatinganti-communistnovels.In1952sheleftShanghaiforHongKongwiththepurposeofresuminginterruptedstudies,butfailed.ShecouldnotfindapositioninHongKongsothatshebecamefinanciallyhelplessandhadtoworkforU.S.I.A.UnderthecommissionofU.S.I.A,shewroteandself-translatedtwoanti-communistnovels,namelyTheRice-SproutSongandTheNakedEarth.Asforanti-communist,shewasnotreluctant.Asadecliningaristocrat,shepersonallydreadedtheinfluenceofCommunism,whichcanbeseenfromZhang’sOutlook,“fromthethirtiesonward,Ifeltthepressurefromtheleftinwhatever2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.2Iread.AlthoughIfeltaninstinctivedislikeforit,andwasalwaysoutsidepopulartrends,Iknewthat,unlikeWesternCommunism,itsinfluencewouldnotbelimitedtothethirties”.⑨

　　ThecentralstoryofTheRice-SproutSongisaboutariotinavillagedevastatedbyfamine.Farmerslaboralltheyeararound,stilltheyareunabletofilltheirstomachsandonlyfeedonricegruel.SufferingfromexorbitanttaxesandleviesimposedbyChineseCommunistParty,Chinesepeasantshavenomeansoflivelihoodandfindlifeunbearableandimpossibleforthem.ZhangAilingdesignedanincidenttotriggerarebelagainstChineseCommunistParty,namelyeveryhouseholdisdemandedtocontribute“halfapigandfortycattiesofNewYearcakes”tothesoldiers’families(TheRice-SproutSong116).Uponcloseexamination,wefinditunreal.Thereareonlyafewsoldiers’familiesinavillage,ifeveryhouseholdcontributesasmuchashalfapig,itissurelymorethanenoughforthesoldiers’

　　familiestoeatandtheyevencanopenabutcher’sshop.Evidently,ZhangAilingmisrepresentedChineseCommunistParty.Accordingtohernarration,ChineseCommunistPartyisdestructiveandevil,whichcanbeseenfromthefollowingstatement,“onemomentthisarmycomes;onemomentthatarmycomes.Afterthearmycomethebandits.Andthistimeitisworsethananybandits.Youcan’tevenburyfourouncesofmilletundergroundandgetawaywithit.Yes,theyalwaysknow”(TheRice-SproutSong106).Thestoryalsoprobesintothecharacters’

　　psycheanddealswiththeinterpersonalrelationshipbetweenfarmersandtheChineseCommunistPartymembers.Thereisalackofunderstandingamongthem,whodesiretopryoneachother’saffairs.Everyoneisafraidofbeingwatchedbyothers,whichrepresentsasocietyinwhichnotonlypersonalprivacyisneverrespected;butwhereaslightmistake,ifdiscovered,mightleadtosufferingandpermanentruin.Toliveinsuchasocietyisaprecariousthing.Everyonehastobeverycautiousinhisorherdailyactivitiesandconversations.Nooneotherthanoneselfcanbetrusted.Inhernovel,mistrust,suspicionandgloatingoverothers’

　　sufferingbecomepsychologicalillnessesthatseemtohavebeeningrainedinthecontemporaryChinesenationalcharacter.TraditionalfolkspeechesandpoliticsareridiculedandsatirizedinTheRice-SproutSong.Whenthekanpu干部asksPlentyOwnChou周大有whyhechoosestomarryGoldFlower金花,herepliesthatbecauseshecanwork.GoldFlowergoesthroughthesame2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.2routine.FortheWesternreaders,itisridiculousbecausetheybelievethatmarriageshouldbebasedonaffectionatefeelingsinsteadofsomesuperficialthings,abilitytoworkforexample.Worsestill,Communistswhowanttogetmarriedshouldasktheorganizationforpermission.

　　Moreover,thestoryconsolidatestheWesterners’

　　prototypeimageoffilthyChinesepeople.Thestorybeginswiththedescriptionofthatchedprivies,“inthiscountrytownthefirstbuildinginsightwereastringofexactlyidenticalthatchedprivies,whichhadadesertedairdespitetheoccasionalwhiffoffaintodorinthewind”(TheRice-SproutSong1).Inthisstory,Chinesepeopledefinitelyhavenosenseofsanitation:theirclothesaregreasy;foodissmelly;packagesareoil-stained;livingenvironmentreleasesdisgustingodor.

　　InspiredbythesuccessofTheRice-SproutSong,ZhangAilingself-translatedLoveinRedLand(《赤地之恋》)intoTheNakedEarth.Itcanbeconsideredastravelwriting:firstly,themaleprotagonistLiuQuan刘荃experienceslandreforminanorthernvillage,whereinnocentfarmersaretorturedtodeath;andthenhemovestoShanghaitotakepartinThreeAntis,themovementagainstthethreeevilsofbureaucracy,wasteandcorruption;finally,hejoinsthearmytoResistUSAggressionandAidKorea.

　　ThestoryisalsocenteredontheloverelationshipbetweenLiuQuanandHuangJuan黄绢,whichendsupwithnogoodbecauseHuangJuanhastoliveillicitlywithShenKaifu申凯夫inexchangeforthesafetyofLiuQuan.Aseriesofeventsleadtothemaleprotagonist’sdisillusionmentanddisappointmentwithCommunistdoctrines.ByexposingthedarknessandevilinChineseCommunistParty,thestorywasintendedtocontaintheexpansionofCommunistsandpopularizeAmericandemocracyandcivilization.

　　Byfabricatingthestory,ZhangAilingexposedthatChineseCommunistleadersschemeagainsteachotherandconcoctedaserialsofvilecharacterssuchasZhangLi张励,ZhaoChu赵楚,CuiPing崔平,GeShan戈珊,ShenKaifuandChenYi陈毅.ZhangLiisaCommunistwhocommitsmurderwithoutblinkinganeyelidandtrieseverymeanstoseducewomen.ZhaoChuandCuiPingusedtobecomradesandintimatefriendswhowentthickandthintogether.Theirrelationshipusedtobesodeepthattheycouldrescueeachotherattheriskoftheirownlives.However,theirintimacyendsupwithmutualoppressionandpersecution.GeShanisafemaleCommunistwhocontractslungdiseaseandhassexualintercourseswithallkindsofmen.ShenKaifu,apowerfulandinfluentialmaleCommunist,2Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationTextSelection

　　2.2ismean,cruel,hypocriticalandlustful.ChenYiisaccusedofembezzlingthefundforpurchasingmedicalapparatusandinstrumentstobuyfurovercoats,furbootsandfurgloves.Fromtheaboveanalysis,itcanbeseenthatZhangAilingchosetoself-translatethetextswhichconstructanerotic,debauched,impotentandprimitiveimageofChinesepeopleandaninhumaneandautocraticimageofChina,becauseonlytheOriental“Other”imageofChinacouldsatisfytheWesterners’

　　voyeuristicdesireandarousetheirinteresttoread.Herself-translatedtextsreflecttheWesterners’

　　stereotypedimpressionsofamystic,backward,depravedandviolentChinaaswellastheirbiasedanddisdainfulattitudestowardsChinesepoliticalsystemandChineseCommunistParty,whichindicatesself-orientalizationinherself-translationtextselection.

　　3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　Chapter3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproachesThischapterwillbedevotedtoanalyzingself-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sself-translationpurposesandapproaches.Confrontedwithculturaldifferenceswhichwereunfamiliartothetargetreaders,ZhangAilinghadtodecidehowtopresentherhomeculture,withthefollowingchoices:literaltranslation,transposition,rewriting,deletion,additionandsoon.Whateverchoicesmadebyherwouldinevitablyrevealhertranslationpurposes.ZhangAilingmadelessdemandontheWesternreaders,translatedfromtheirstandpoint,gavecentralimportancetothem,conformedtothemainstreamideologyandtheirprejudice,andamplifiedthecorruptionandprimitivenessofChinesecultureexpectedbythemtoserveasafoiltothecivilizedanddemocraticWesternculture.

　　GivingcentralimportancetotheWesternreadersindicatesareader-basedorreader-centeredconcept,whichmeansthatatranslatorputsmuchemphasisonreaders’

　　aestheticexpectation,thinkingpatterns,ideology,experiencesofdailylife,beliefsandvalues.Thesefactorsarecalledhorizonofexpectation,whicharepreexistedthoughtsandconceptsinthereaders’minds.ZhangAilingtranslatedworkstotargetatEnglish-speakingreadersinHongKongandAmerica.MotivatedbythefinancialbenefitandherdreamofageniusinAmerica,sheboretheimpliedreaders’

　　horizonofexpectationinmindandgavecentralimportancetoit.ZhangAiling’sbeliefinthecentralimportanceoftheimpliedreaderswasarticulatedin“OnWritings”(论写作),namely“byclassifyingyourselfintoanaudiencegroup,wewillautomaticallyknowwhattheyneed.Givethemwhattheyneed”.⑩

　　Soitcanbeseenthatshealwaysattachedgreatimportancetotheimpliedreaders’expectationsandneeds.Asforwaystocatertotheaudience,ZhangAilingmentionedthat“onewayistosaywhatpeoplewantto1○say;theotheristosaywhatpeoplewanttohear”,1whichsuggeststhatsheputmuchemphasisonthetargetreaders’worldexperiences,ideology,aestheticinclination,habitualwayofthinking,expectations,valuesandbeliefs.Moreimportantly,shemadeagreatefforttomakeitherguidingprincipleinhertranslation.

　　31Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1InordertofitintheWesterners’

　　prototypeimageofChina,ZhangAilingadoptedthetranslationapproachofliteraltranslationtorepresentadepravedandprimitiveimageofChina,additiontomagnifythenegativeaspectsofChineseculture,andrewritingtomarginalizeandridiculeChinesepeople.AsforotheraspectsofculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheWesterncountries,sheadoptedthetranslationapproachoftranspositiontoincreasereadabilityandconfirmtheWesternculturalvalue.Inaddition,inordertocatertotheWesterners’senseofculturalsuperiority,shedeletedthesentenceswhichchallengetheirauthority.3.1FittingintheWesterners’PrototypeImageofChina

　　Undertheseveretestof“language,publishingandmarket”,ZhangAilinghadtotranslateinconformitywiththeWesternreaders’imaginationaboutChina.SheacceptedthebinaryoppositionviewoftheEastandtheWest,viewedChineseculturefromtheperspectiveoftheWesternreaders,examinedculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheWesttostrengthenculturalhegemonyofimperialism,anddisplayedChinainaccordancewiththeWesterners’prototypeimage,whichmanifestsherself-orientalization.

　　3.1.1RepresentingaDepravedandPrimitiveChinabyLiteralTranslationTargetingattheWesternreaders,ZhangAilingintroducedherhomeculturefromthestandpointoftheWesternreaders.InordertopandertotheWesterners’cognitionconcerningthedepravity,backwardness,abstrusenessandprimitivenessofChina,sheadoptedthetranslationtacticofliteraltranslationtorepresentChinaastheOriental“Other”toserveasafoiltotheculturalprestigeoftheWesternersintermsofcustoms,languagesandthinkingpatterns.“Literaltranslationtakesword-for-wordtranslationasitsstartingpoint,althoughbecauseofthenecessityofconformingtotargetlanguagegrammar,thefinaltargettextmayalsodisplaygroup-grouporclause-clauseequivalence”

　　(ShuttleworthandCowie95).Thefollowingexamplesareillustrative.Example1:Sourcetext:三十年来她戴着黄金的枷。她用那沉重的枷角劈杀了几人，没死的也送了半条命。(金锁记

　　146)32Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Targettext:Forthirtyyearsnowshehadwornagoldencangue.Shehaduseditsheavyedgestochopdownseveralpeople,thosethatdidnotdiewerehalfkilled.(“TheGoldenCangue”190)

　　“黄金的枷”wasliterallyrenderedinto“agoldencangue”.CangueisaheavyboardorframewornaroundaneckasconfinementandpublichumiliationinChina.Ontheonehand,itstandsforthejewelrythatthefemaleprotagonistCh’i-Ch’iao曹七巧wears,whichimpliesthatshetradeshermarriageforfinancialbenefit;Ontheotherhand,sheisconfinedtothegoldencangue.Withtheevolutionofthestory,Ch’i-Ch’iao,whooriginallyisavictimofthefeudalsociety,becomesmaliciousandperverted.Inordertoplundermoney,shebecomespatheticanddetestable,torturingandravagingpeoplearoundher.Shetakesadvantageofeveryopportunitytosneerandscoffathersister-in-lawChi-shou芝寿.HerpoisonouswordsandvenomousbehaviormakeChi-shou“theclawsofaslaughteredchicken”,finallyherdeath(“TheGoldenCangue”

　　175).ZhangAilingusedstereotypingandbizarrecontenttoconformtotheOccidentalreaders’prototypeimpressionofChinesepeople.Byliteraltranslation,ZhangAilingrepresentedadull,insane,depravedandvulgarimageofaChinesewoman.Example2:

　　Sourcetext:你等着看，三茶六礼，红灯花轿，少一样你拉着老吴打她嘴巴。(怨女

　　304)Targettext:Youwaitandsee:thethreeteas,thesixgifts,theredlamps,thefloweredsedan-chair,alltheusualmarriagetrimmings,ifthere’sonethingmissing,justcollarOldWuandslapherface.(TheRougeoftheNorth20)Atfirstglance“thethreeteas”and“thesixgifts”mightmakenosensetotheWesternreaders.Uponcloseexamination,wewillfindthatZhangAilingintendedtoconformtotheOccidentals’expectationofChineselanguagewhichlackedgrammaticalstructureandwereincapableofaccuratethought.FromtheWesterners’

　　pointofview,comparedwiththerefinementandaccuracyofEnglishlanguage,Chineselanguagewas“aninferioroneandlefttheChineseinarudimentarystageoflinguisticdevelopment”(Johns55).TheinaccuracyandungrammaticalnatureofChineselanguageindicatedarelativelylowlevelofcultural33Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1attainment.SoitcanbeseenthatZhangAilingrepresentedtheprimitiveandequivocalnatureofChineselanguageimaginedbytheWesternreaderstoconfirmthattheWesterninvasionandsubjugationofChinaservedfordisseminatingcivilizationandenlightenment.Example3:

　　Sourcetext:夫妻不和，长白渐渐又往花街柳巷里走动。(金锁记

　　135)

　　Targettext:Sincethetwodidnotgetalong,Ch’ang-paiagainwentscrollingin“thestreetsofflowersandthelanesofwillows”.(“TheGoldenCangue”177)

　　“花街柳巷”wasliterallyrenderedinto“thestreetsofflowersandthelanesofwillows”,referringtothebrothel.AlthoughthetranslationisstrangetotheWesternreaders,itiseasyforthemtounderstandwhattheplayboyCh’ang-paiiscapableof.Byliteraltranslation,ZhangAilingrepresentedadepravedanddissipatedimageofChina.

　　Byliteraltranslation,ZhangAilingrepresentedChinatobelackofappealanddegenerateinconformitywiththeWesterners’

　　culturalcognitionandculturalexpectation.ThedegenerationandprimitivenessstrengthenedthesamerepresentationsthatChinawascomplicatedandirremediable.

　　3.1.2MagnifyingtheNegativeAspectsofChineseCulturebyAddition

　　Thetranslationtacticofadditionistoincludealotofredundantinformationoradditionallyexplanatoryphrasesinthetranslatedtexts.Assumingthatthetranslatedtextsarenotcomprehensibleunlesstheimplicitinformationismadeaccessible,self-orientalizedtranslatorstendtomakealotofexplicitexplanation.ThisisthesamecasewithZhangAiling.AssumingthattheWesternreaderswereignorantofChinesecultural-specificitems,sheactedasanativeinformanttodecodetheunfathomablemysteriesofChina.Sheadoptedthetranslationapproachofadditionalottoexplicitlyexplainthebizarreness,stagnationandviciousnessofChineseculture.SheprovidedtheadditionalliteraryandculturalbackgroundinthetranslatedEnglishtextstomagnifythenegativeaspectsofChineseculture,whichsuggeststhatshegaveprioritytotheWesternreaders.TheprioritygivenbyZhangAilingtotheWesternreadersactuallyimpliestheunequalculturalexchangebetweenChinaandtheWesterncountries.

　　Example1:34Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Sourcetext:这不过是讨个吉利，希望新娘子将来也和她（金福太太）一样福气。(秧歌15)Targettext:Butitwasanecessaryceremony,expressiveofthewishthatthebridewouldliveaslongandhaveasmanysonsandgrandsonsastheoldwomancalledthe“ch’uenfut’ait’ai”onthisspecialoccasion-thecompletelyblessedlady.(TheRice-SproutSong11)Chinesecultureattachesgreatimportancetothebirthofboysforthebeliefthatthemaledescendantscanburnincenseandoffersacrificesinfrontoftheirancestors’graves,otherwisethedeadwillbecursedandtormentedintheperpetualstruggleagainsthungerandpoverty.Therefore,bytheaccidentofsexdifferentiations,boysbecomethetreasuresofthefamily;onthecontrary,girlsarethehorribleburdens,whoaredislikedandunwelcomesincetheirbirth.Inordertoproducetheneedymaleoffspring,Chinesemengetmarriedassoonaspossible.Chinesewomenarerequiredtoproducethemaleheirstocontinueafamilyline.Inabilitytoproduceamaledescendentjustifiesadivorce.Immortality,prosperityandabunchofsonsmeanhappinessforChinesepeople.IntheWesterners’uncannyimagination,Chinesepeoplearebarbarians,licentious,shamelessandfertile.AgrowingpopulationofChinesepeopleisnotonlyadisastertotheirowncountry,butalsoathreattotheWesterncountries.Boundbymoralityandsociety,civilizedpeoplehaveasmallerreproductivecapacity,however,lustfulanddebauchedChinesepeoplereproduceoffspringlikeanimals.ZhangAilingexplicitlyexplainedthemeaningof“金福太太”totheWesternreadersinserviceoftheracialprototype.

　　Example2:

　　Sourcetext:金锁、银锁、翡翠锁片，都是要把孩子锁在人世上。(怨女

　　330)Targettext:Thegiftsweregoldandsilverpadlockseachwithitsownchaintobewornaroundthebaby’sneckandflatpendantsofgreenjadeshapedlikepadlocks.Thebabymightescapeifnotlockedupandchaineddowntothislifeonearth.(TheRougeoftheNorth56)35Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1TheEnglishversionismuchlongerthantheChineseonetoexplainChinesepeople’sbeliefinsupernaturalthings.Chinesepeoplearesoignorantandfatuousthattheytrytokeepthelifeofachildbymakingthechildweargoldandsilverpadlocks.ThethoughtpatternsandideologicalstateofthewholeChinesenationareperceivedtobefraughtwithvariedstupidideasandsuperstition.TheprevalenceofsuperstitionsandfortunetellersmakeChinesepeoplelessrespectableandadmirable.ZhangAilingtookadvantageofthisbizarrenessandignorancebyaddingexplanatoryinformationinthetranslatedtext,whichstrengthenedtheOccidentals’

　　archetypalimageofthebenightedandbackwardChineseculture,andservedasafoiltorationalityofWesterncivilization.

　　Example3:Sourcetext:归在孝心上，好让他名正言顺地屈服。(怨女

　　310)Targettext:Puttingitallonfilialpiety,thehighestvirtue,soheneednotfeelashamedforgivingintoher.(TheRougeoftheNorth29)Theadditionallyexplanatoryphrase“thehighestvirtue”wasincludedintheEnglishversiontohighlightthatChinesepeoplegiveprioritytofilialpiety,whichisconsideredtobethebasisofChineseautocracy.Inthepatrimonialbureaucraticorder,sonsarerequiredtoobeytheirfathers;cabinetministersaresupposedtoyieldtotheemperors;ordinarypeopleareexpectedtocomplywiththegovernmentofficials.Lackoffilialpietyisperceivedasthesourceofallsocialvices,suchasvoidofsincerity,violationofproprieties,disobediencetosuperiorsandcowardiceonthebattlefield.AstotheWesterners,itisthefactthattheunparalleledreverencetoauthorityis“tyranny,oppressionandinjustice”

　　(Johns41).Governedbyobediencetofilialpiety,Chinesepeoplecanneverbeself-dependant,letalonetoownfreedom.IntheWesterners’imagination,Chinesepeopledesperatelystruggleagainstthedespotismandpoverty;however,theWesternersenjoygreatfreedomandprosperitybroughtbytheiradvancedcivilization.

　　Example4:Sourcetext:他直拱手

　　(怨女

　　320)Targettext:Hedidobeisancewithoutbotheringtogetup,righthandover

　　leftfist,jerkingthemupanddownrepeatedlywithlittlebows.(TheRougeoftheNorth43)36Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Example5:

　　Sourcetext:“百顺——又往哪里跑？这点子工夫还惦记着玩！还不快上学去！”

　　(桂花蒸

　　阿小悲秋

　　168)Targettext:“ShinFa!Nowwhereareyourunningto?Onlyamomentleftandyourmindstillonplaying!Feed,youlittledevil,andgotoschool.”(“Shame,Amah!”93)WecanseeinExample4thattheEnglishversionwasgreatlyexpanded,whichhighlightsthatChinesepeoplepaymuchattentiontopoliteness.Chinesepeopleindistinctlyknowtheformalitiesandmaketheproprietiespartoftheirdailyroutine.Chinesepeoplebelievethattheuseofproprietiesiscriticaltomaintainsocialorder,andsmoothinterpersonalrelationships.Onthecontrary,theWesternershavemisunderstandingofanddisdainfulattitudestowardstheover-elaboratedformalities.TheyholdtheviewthatChinesepolitenessisnotgenuinekindnesssincerelyexpressed;“itisaritualoftechnicalitieswhich,likealltechnicalities,areimportant,notastheindicesofastateofmindorofheart,butasindividualpartsofacomplexwhole”

　　(Smith36).Thecomplexmassofrulesisbewildering,whichdoesnotindicateanyvirtuesinhumannatureandimpliesthatChinesepeoplearecomplicated.TheWesternersdisparageChinesepolitenessandevensuggestthatthesuperfluousrulesofcourtesyshouldbeabolished.

　　InExample5,thevulgarlanguage“feed,youlittledevil”wasadded.IntheWesterners’

　　view,Chinesepeoplehaveatendencytoshoutabusesinpublic.Iftheyquarrelwitheachother,filthylanguageandpoisonouswordscomeoutjustasthestreamfloodswithdirtythingsandcontinueswithoutanending.

　　ThecombinationoftheChineseetiquetteswithvulgarlanguageindicatesthatChinesepeoplearedeceitfulandcunning,whichbelittlesChinesecordialityandreliability.Byadoptionofthetranslationapproachofaddition,ZhangAilingmagnifiedthenegativeaspectsofChineseculture.

　　Example6:Sourcetext:“这三爷真不得了，黑饭白饭，三个门口。”她一面拿钥匙开厨门一面说。

　　(怨女

　　375)Targettext:“ThisThirdMasterisreallyinafix,withhisblackriceand3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1whitericethreehouseholds,”shesaidassheturnedawaytofindthekeyforthecabinet.Opiumisblackricebecauseitbecomesjustasmuchastaffoflife.(TheRougeoftheNorth118)TheimagethatChinesepeoplesmokeopiumwasprevalentintheOccidentals’collectiveimaginationaboutChina.Intheirimagination,mostChinesepeoplewereaddictedtothenarcotic,lyinginbedandsmokingopium.Opium-smokingwasassociatedwiththefrailtyinbodyandmind;opium-smokerswerelabeledbydefectsincharacterssuchaslethargy,depravity,indolenceandwickedness.TheWesternersnotonlyimaginedChinesepeopletobeopiumsmokers,butalsobelievedthat:EveryChinesepersonsmugglesfirearmsandammunition,putscorpseunderbedaftermurder,rapeswomenregardlessofageandengagesineverythingthatdeservesnothinglessthandismemberment.[...]Chinesepeopleactuallybecomethefoulest,themostdisgusting,themostcontemptibleandthemosttreacherous12animalsontwolegs.○

　　ZhangAilingintentionallyaddedthesentence“opiumisblackricebecauseitbecomesjustasmuchastaffoflife”togeneralizeChineseculture.Opium-smokingbecameoneofthemainimagesofChinesepeopleinconformitywiththeWesterners’aestheticconceptaboutChina,whichwasmisleadingandconfusing.Asisknowntoall,itwasBritainthatimportedopiumtoChinaforthesakeofwealth.Inordertojustifytheiropiumtrade,BritishpeoplerepresentedChinesepeopleascongenitalopiumsmokersandinsistedthattheyjustsuppliedwhatChinesepeopleneeded.Byadoptionofthetranslationtacticofaddition,ZhangAilinginfactrationalizedopiumtrade.Example7:Sourcetext:路上来了个老太婆，叫住了那小贩问他芝麻糖的价钱。(秧歌

　　7)Targettext:Apasser-by,anoldwomanwithboundfeet,stoppedthehawkertoaskthepriceofthecandy.(TheRice-SproutSong3)Foot-bindingforwomenwasacorruptandout-datedpracticeinChina.Althoughfoot-bindingwaspainfulandinconvenient,Chinesewomencrippledandboundtheirfeet3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1withtheaimofentertainingmalesaswellasacquiringextrabeautybroughtbyaswayingfigureonapairofpermanentlydeformedfeet.ChinesemalestotallyneglectedthefactthatthepersecutionofwrappingfeetwasphysicaltortureandpsychologicalhumiliationforChinesefemales.TheWesternmalesalsohadaspeciallikingfortheOrientallyprototypewomentypicalofreservedness,exquisiteness,mildnessandmysterybroughtbyapairof“three-inchgoldlotus”.Therefore,apairofsmallfeetwasanessentialcriterionformeasuringOrientalbeautyandacrucialfactorforexitingsexualdesires.Theaddedphrase“boundfeet”

　　madetheWesternreadersbeexposedtotheseeminglymoststrikingcharacteristicoftheChinesefemales,whichindicatesthatZhangAilingconsciouslyexploitedthearchetypalimagetopandertotheWesternreaders’horizonofaesthetics.

　　Example8:Sourcetext:“吃啦吗？”(赤地之恋

　　13)Targettext:“Haveyoueaten?”whichwastheusualphraseofgreeting,anytimeofday.(NakedEarth10)

　　Peoplegreeteachotherbysaying“Haveyoueaten?”inChina;bycontrast,thenormalwayofexpressingsalutationis“Howdoyoudo?”intheEnglish-speakingcountries.AstotheWesterners,“doingisthenormalconditionoftheAnglo-Saxon,aseatingisthenormalconditionofChinese”(Smith41).Chinesepeoplearefood-orientedandtheyvirtuallycaneateverythingsuchaspoisonousdogs,dirtyinnardsandrats;Chinaisastarvedcountry,filledwithtragedy,beggars,famine,illness,widespreadpovertyandskinnychildren.Theadditionalsentenceclause“whichwastheusualphraseofgreeting,anytimeofday”magnifiesChinesepeople’sobsessionwithfood.

　　Example9:

　　Sourcetext:那迷离的月光就从窗格子里照进来，照在地上，成为朦

　　胧的白玉古钱的图案。(赤地之恋

　　10)

　　Targettext:Moonlightcominginthroughthecarvedlatticedwindowfellonthestone-pavedfloorinlittlepatternslikeoldcoinsofwhitejade,round,withasquareholeinthemiddle.(NakedEarth8)

　　Example10:Sourcetext:怪不得是红白喜事两用的音乐。(怨女

　　355)3Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.1Targettext:Nowonderthesamemusicwasusedinboth“redandwhite

　　weddings”—

　　“whitewedding”beingeuphemismforfuneral.

　　(TheRougeoftheNorth91)IntheWesterners’

　　minds,Chinesecustomsarebizarre,uncivilizedanddegraded.AsPeterConnhasmentioned,“thecustomsthatChinesepeoplekeepaholeinthemiddleofacoin,theyusewhiteforcondolences,theycountagesinastrangeway,theyremoveshoesattheentranceofadoor,allbecomethelaughing-stockfortheWesternersandevidenceof13Chinesepeoplebeingweirdandamusing”.○ZhangAilingintentionallyexpandedthetargetedtexttoincludetheexplanatoryphrases“withasquareholeinthemiddle”and“whiteweddingbeingeuphemismforfuneral”tomagnifythebizarrenessofChinesecustoms.

　　ZhangAilingaddedalotofredundantinformationsuchasdislikeofdaughters,superstition,filialpiety,superfluousrulesofcourtesy,opium-smoking,foot-binding,obsessionwithfoodandbizarrecustomstomagnifythenegativeaspectsofChineseculture.AllthesemagnifydefectsinChinesecharacterssuchasirrational,depraved,ridiculous,deceitful,barbarousandfatuous.Therefore,ZhangAilingconstructedChinesepeopleasapopulationofdegeneratetypes,confirmedWesternculturalprestige,andrationalizedtheirconquestandcolonization,whichevidentlysuggestshertendencytoself-orientalization.

　　3.1.3RidiculingandMarginalizingChinesePeoplebyRewriting

　　ZhangAilingmanipulatedtheoriginalChineseversiontoridiculeandmarginalizeChinesepeople,whichcanbefoundinthetranslatedversionofthefiction“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”.IttellsastoryaboutonedaylifeofaChinesefemaleservantcalledAXiao阿小.ThenameAXiaowasrewrittenintoAhNée.NéeoriginatesfromFrench,whichisusedafterthenameofamarriedwomanandbeforeherfather’sfamilyname.Infact,itisnonameatall,whichimpliesthatChinesewomenhavelittlestatus.Intermsoflanguageandpsychology,theChinesecharacterissubmissiveandmarginal.Thetitleofthenovel“IndianSummer:AXiao’sAutumnalLament”

　　wasalteredinto“Shame,Amah!”,

　　whichwasadaptedfromtheutterancemadebyMr.Schacht:“‘Shame,Amah!’

　　waggingafingerather,‘Neverhavethenumbersright’”(95).ThefactthatAhNéecouldnotimparttheoriginalinformationaccuratelysuggeststhatChinesepeopleareintellectualmuddled.IntheWesterners’minds,“accuracyisabhorrenttotheOrientalmind.4Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.2Wantofaccuracy,whicheasilydegeneratesintountruthfulness,isinfactthemaincharacteristicoftheOrientalmind”(Said38).Disregardofaccuracyis“anannoyance”totheWesterners,whoattachgreatimportancetoexactnessandprecision(Smith49).TheoriginaltitleconveystheimageofaChinesemaidinasuffocatingautumn.However,therewrittentitlenotonlyblotsouttheimagerybutalsoexpressesthatZhangAilingridiculedChinesepeopleinthetoneoftheWesterners.

　　ZhangAilingmanipulatednotonlytranslationofthetitle,butalsoofthedetailstoconformtotheWesterners’prototypeimageofChinesepeople.Inthesourcetext,AhNée’shusbandandsonareinShanghai.However,inthetargetEnglishtextthedetailswererewritten.TheChinesefemaleAhNéedelineatedin“Shame,Amah!”extricatesherselffromtheshacklesoffeudalproprietiesandunscrupulouslyhasaloverinShanghaidespitethefactthatherhusbandlaborsinAustralia.ByZhangAiling’srewriting,anindustriousandkind-heartedChinesewomanwasalteredtobeshrewd,dissipatedanddishonorableinconformitywiththeOccidentals’utopianfantasiesabouttheOrientalfemales.AstotheWesterners,theOrientalfemalesarecloselyassociatedwithlicentiouspleasuresandexoticflavors.TheyevenholdtheviewthatChinesewomencouldaccomplishnothingbesideshavingsex.ThemisrepresentationofthefaithlessandlicentiousChinesewomanimagebyZhangAilinginherself-translatedversionconsolidatestheWesterners’preexistednotionsofChinesewomen.Inproducingthearchetype,translationisintertwinedwithculturalhegemonyandtranslators’respectfulordisdainfulattitudestowardsculturaldifferences.TheChinesefemaleimageswhichpreexistintheOccidentals’

　　mindsareintimatelyassociatedwiththemarginalizedandinferiorstatusofChineseculture.Inotherwords,Chinesewomenimagesareperceivedtobetypicalmanifestationsofdepraved,passive,ignorant,humbleandbackwardqualitiesinChineseculture.Infact,theconstructionofChinesewomenimagesdisclosetheWesterners’hiddenpurposeofjustifyingculturalinfiltrationandculturalinvasioninflicteduponChinabytheWesterncountries.3.2ConfirmingUniversalityoftheWesternCulturebyTransposition

　　Translationinvolvesdealingwithculturaldifferences,namelywhethertomanifestortocoverupthem.ZhangAilingchosetodisplayorevenmagnifythenegativeaspectsof41Self-orientalizationinZhangAiling’sSelf-translationPurposesandApproaches

　　3.2Chineseculture.AsfortheotheraspectsofculturaldifferencesbetweenChinaandtheWesterncountries,sheputmuchemphasisontheWesternreaders,andusedthereceivingaudience’shabitualwayofexpressiontopresenttheoriginalcontentwiththepurposeofincreasingreadability.However,theuniquevalueofChineseculturecouldbeobliterated.TheWesternreadersmistakenlybelievethattheirthinkingpatterns,valuesystemsandbeliefsareuniversal,andexperienceasenseofidentificationwiththeirownculturefromexaminingthecultural“Other”.ZhangAilingusedthetranslationmethodoftranspositiontoconfirmuniversalityoftheWesternculture.Transpositionis“ageneraltermusedbyHervey&HigginstodescribethevariousdegreesofdeparturefromliteraltranslationthatonemayresorttointheprocessoftransferringthecontentsofaSTintothecontextofatargetculture”(ShuttleworthandCowie49).Therefore,transpositionisanalternativemethodtotranslate,whichsuggeststranslators’

　　allegiancetothetargetcultureandtheireffortstosatisfytheimpliedreaderswithstorieswhichdemandaminimumreadingexertion.InZhangAiling’scase,theapplicationofthistranslationmethodremovedtheobstaclesoftheWesternreaders’understandingbroughtbyculturaldifferences.However,theculturalconnotationsandaestheticmeaningcouldbelost;worsestill,theoriginalculturalimagerycouldbedistorted,andtheWesterners’beliefsandvaluesystemcouldbeconfirmedandconsolidated.

　　Example1:Sourcetext:酱黄大水缸上面描出淡黄龙。(桂花蒸

　　阿小悲秋

　　168)Targettext:Thebigbrownwaterjarembossedwithpaleyellowdragons.(“Shame,Amah!”93)InChineseculture,“龙”isakindofmiraculousanimalandasymbolofmagnificence,nobilityandgracefulness.Astoemperors,“龙”standsforunconquerablepowerandimperialauthority;theyareusedtoregardingthemselvesas“龙”;andtheirutensilsareusuallydecoratedwith“龙”.Astoordinarypeople,itisauspiciousandhonorable.Chinesepeopletakegreatdelightinencounterswith“龙”.Forthousandsofyears,“龙”

　　hasactuallypenetratedintoeveryaspectofChinesesociety,andbecomethecrystallizationandaccumulationofChineseculture.ForeverydescendantofYanDiandHuangDi,“龙”isasymbol,astateofmindandadeepattachmentbetweenfleshandblood.Titlessuchasthe42

篇二：自我东方化

　　

　　东方主义名词解释

　　东方主义则是东方学研究的概念衍生，20世纪以来，用东方主义形容西方对东方的研究是有负面意思的，大意是指该研究者抱着十八、十九世纪的欧洲帝国主义态度来理解东方世界，又指外来人，主要是西方人，对东方文化及人文带有偏见的理解。

　　简言之就是，东方主义是指西方人在研究过程中对东方文化的偏见性的思维方式。

　　“对于欧洲而言，东方既不是欧洲的纯粹虚构或幻想，也不是一种自然的存在，而是一种被人为创造出来的理论和实践体系，蕴含着漫长历史积累下来的物质层面的内容。”这一对萨义德观点的总结，恰如其分地表述了东方主义的实质内容。

　　萨义德认为，东方主义属于西方建构产物，旨在为东西方建立一个明显的分野，从而突出西方文化的优越性。并且，这种建构及论述，与那些国家的真实面貌几乎毫无关系。

　　这就是说，西方人自己自我构建了一个面目全非的、甚至本来可能不存在的东方，用来区别自我与他者。

　　关于东西方的分界线的争议一直存在，众说纷纭从来没有定论。有人简单地认为欧亚分界线就是东西方的分界线，有的人认为铁幕是东西方分界线，还有的人认为阿富汗以西是西方，有人认为伊朗以西是西方，欧洲更有人认为希腊是东方。国人一般觉得日本是西方的一部分。

　　有些国家自己也陷入了糊涂，俄罗斯从来不知道自己是东还是西，搞出了不伦不类的“欧亚主义”，土耳其、高加索三国等处于欧亚交界线上的国家无一不对这一身份认同无比纠结，成为无所适从、两面不讨好的国家，德国内部甚至产生了“国内边界”，一个国家分属两个阵营长达数十年之久。

　　究竟什么是东方？什么是西方？这个问题好像大家都不太明白。只是当国际矛盾风起云涌，各国纷纷选边站队时，大家才能明显地感受到：东西方确实存在，而且存在矛盾，只是边界不甚清晰。

　　那么如果一定要分出来，恐怕只有西方有较为明确的边界，至少可以让西方人自己确定自己的边界，西方人从心底里愿意认同谁，谁就是西方，反之就不是。

　　东方来自于西方人的自我构建，从来都没有成为一个整体，西方人说谁是东方谁就必须是东方，落后国家没有选择

　　西方确实存在，美国、加拿大是西方，英国毫无疑问是西方，英国的邻国，法国、荷兰、北欧各国，也应该属于西方。法国的邻国，西班牙、意大利，应该是西方。但是从德国开始，歧义开始出现。

　　“东方”这个词，在英语里的原意是指莱茵河以东的地方。也就是说要是按照英国人的看法，德国人不是西方人。德国在二战之前也确实认为自己是不同于西方的独特文明，但是德国人把自己搞臭了，也不好意思再说自己是什么独特高贵的文明了，于是西德在战后加入了西方。

　　同时加入西方的还有奥地利。但是东德，以及原来普鲁士的大部分领土，全部都处于铁幕以东，依旧不是西方。

　　而如果排除掉德国，可以看到西欧的边界与西罗马帝国的欧洲部分高度重合，这个地方自古以来都有着稳定的西方认同，他们把自己以东的地方统称为东方。

　　所以一个稳定的西方是确实存在的，它就位于欧亚大陆的最西端，后来开拓了北美，但是一个统一的东方恐怕是不存在的。

　　在古罗马时期的环地中海世界，存在着一个“已知世界”的概念，类似于中国古代的“天下”概念，但是不同的是地中海世界没有一个类似“中原”的中心。地中海的西部是已知世界的西方，东部是已知世界的东方，后来这个概念演变成了东西罗马分立。

　　东西罗马帝国分立奠定了东西方的分界线，与中国本来没有什么关系

　　所以在西方人看来，在盎格鲁撒克逊人和罗马人看来，东北方的条顿日耳曼蛮族、斯拉夫蛮族，和东地中海的拜占庭、希腊，以及北非和西亚的阿拉伯人、犹太人、波斯人，更远的印度人，传说中的“赛里斯人”，也就是中国人，当然还有日本人，统统都是东方，哪怕这些民族没有任何相似之处，只是因为他们都在罗马人和盎格鲁人的东边。

　　西方后来接纳了文明化了的维京人，西方正式分为北部的日耳曼诸国和南部的拉丁各国，北部较为野蛮，也较为开放，后来发生了宗教改革，以新教为主，南部文明较为古老，同时也相对保守，以天主

　　教为宗，囊括了古罗马时期的西部教会，也就是拉丁语教会的势力范围。

　　而东部地中海渐渐演变为希腊语的地区逐渐被南方的闪米特人翻盘，并逐渐阿拉伯化，希腊文化来到东欧扩展地盘，罗斯受洗之后，欧洲基督教正式分裂为天主教和东正教，东正教地区在后来，受到阿拉伯人更强烈的影响，巴尔干长期处于伊斯兰帝国统治之下。

篇三：自我东方化

　　

　　“自我东方化”、中国的文化符号与文化传播

　　“自我东方化”、中国的文化符号与文化传播

　　摘

　　要：在本文中，我们分析了“自我东方化”的内涵以及对中国人自我文化认同产生的影响。在选择中华文化的文化符号时，需要处理好传统文化与当代文化的关系，体现民族性、代表性，文化传播过程中应该注重对文化符号内涵的解析与深层挖掘符号的意义。如何将文化“有形化”，从日本动漫和《功夫熊猫》等可以得到一些启示。

　　关键词：自我东方化;文化符号;有形文化;孔子学院

　　美国学者阿里夫·德里克在《中国历史与东方主义问题》中认为“欧美人眼中的亚洲如何融入亚洲人的自我形象之中，这最终是与‘西方’思想本身的影响分不开的”，作者一针见血地指出需要对亚洲“传统”的观念详加审视，这种传统是亚洲人与欧洲人接触的产物而非先决条件，是“发明出来的传统”。“自我东方化”（self-orientalization）的概念源自于“东方化”，殖民主义理论学家爱德华·W·萨义德在《东方学》一书中把东方变成“想象的地域”，认为亚洲是战败的，遥远的，存在于欧洲的注视之中，无法表述自己而需要被他人表述。欧洲“东方化东方”最终影响了亚洲对于自我传统的选择，并且通过西方的青睐强化了这种对所选择传统的认同。

　　“自我东方化”的过程在林语堂身上得到淋漓尽致的体现。20世纪上半叶中国的积贫积弱制约着知识分子的文化取向，“语丝”时期的林语堂极力提倡欧化，激烈批判国民劣根性，他的主张与梁启超“新民说”、陈独秀“新青年”等一样，背后是对传统的自卑。可是一旦面对外国人，这种自卑心理便以另一种形式表现出来。1936年出国以后，林语堂在一系列英文著作中大谈中国传统，对外国人讲中国文化，成了西方人眼中的东方哲人。曾经强烈反对的“中庸”思想，在西方人面前也得多多美化。主张“欧化”的林语堂在西方人面前成为了中国传统的捍卫者与宣扬者，这也许是在中西强弱对比的落差中产生的自卑与自恋的两位一体。我们认为，在其身上体现出来这种后期对传统的强烈认同，其实是西方强势话语凌驾于中国弱势话语的情况下中国弱势话语的反弹之体现。

　　当前，孔子学院、孔子课堂在海外的发展如火如荼，方兴未艾。孔子学院的1建立，是受到德国歌德学院、法国的法语联盟、西班牙塞万提斯学院等机构的启发，在国家外汇储备超丰厚的大背景下，以语言文化为依托，向海外输出软实力，展开民间外交工作，从而在国际舞台上提升国家形象（张宽，20XX）。但是在文化传播的过程中存在一些隐忧，在文化符号的选择中存在自我矮化等实际问题。张宽教授指出，孔子学院的活动在不自觉中有可能适应并强化了后殖民批评所说的“东方主义”模式，“中国形象在西方的变化只是折射了西方特定时期的社会能量，西方有什么样的社会需要，就会产生出、制造出什么样的中国形象”。张宽教授在国外所见某孔子学院为当地中小学制作的“中国文化百宝箱”，从罗盘、中国结、团扇到陀螺，包含的几乎全是“自我异国情调化，自我东方化”的物件。孔子学院在海外打造的中国形象，往往较少表现近代以来中国现代化建设的成就。一些对外汉语教材也千篇一律钻入“洋男华女”的模式，生产并强化着殖民话语所认定的东西方权利性别关系。

　　一、文化符号与传播

　　文化符号的选择需要符合五点要求：（1）体现民族特色;（2）具有一定代表性;（3）具有影响力;（4）体现民族精神;（5）注重对文化符号意义内涵的解析。美国《新闻周刊》根据美国、加拿大、英国等国家的网民投票，评选出进入21世纪以来世界最具影响力的十二大文化国家以及这十二个国家的二十个形象符号，其中中国的文化符号为汉语、北京故宫、长城、孔子、道教、丝绸、针灸、瓷器等;美国的文化符号为华尔街、百老汇、好莱坞、硅谷、哈佛大学等;中;日本的文化符号为菊与刀、武士道、樱花、索尼、新干线文化等;法国的文化符号为法语、埃菲尔铁塔、卢浮宫、路易威登、启蒙主义、香奈儿等。对比这些文化符号可以发现中国的文化符号几乎都是古代中国所取得的艺术文化成就;而美国的现代科技、金融、影视，法国的建筑、品牌、思想，日本的文化、技术、民族精神都是存在于现实生活中的活的文化。从中我们应该反思，西方世界对中国文化的看法与中国传达出的国家形象可以说是镜像的关系，肩负文化传播重任的孔院如何向世界展示一个现代的中国的确值得多加揣摩。如果我们说“洋男华女”的模式出现在文艺作品中无可厚非，那在体现国家意志与意识形态的汉语教材中出现性别模式的固见，将对国家文化形象造成损害。20世纪初期，西方人规划的世界秩序在政治、经济、文化上同时向非西方世界推进，加入现代化进程的亚洲国家，2在被迫接受西方殖民主义、帝国主义政治、经济秩序后，也在文化上主动接受了西方现代的世界观念秩序;21世纪的中国在国际舞台上逐渐拥有了政治、经济话语权，在文化上也应该开始自我批判与改造，增加国家现代性的自我认同感，而不是认同他人眼中的东方文化。而近现代中国人正是借助于从西方这面他者之镜获取“自我映像”，来进行自我认同与想象的。也就是说，中国的自我认同与想象正是不断从“虚幻的他者镜像中完成自我的身份认同”（苏明，20XX）。

　　二、传统文化与当代文化的关系

　　文化继承是“扬弃”的自我能动过程。爱德华·萨义德在《文化与帝国主义》中指出了“文化”的两个含义。首先，文化指描述、交流和再现的艺术等相对独立于经济、社会和政治领域，并且通常以审美方式存在的实践，首要目的之一是“愉悦”;第二个含义正如19世纪马修·阿诺德所言是每个社会知识和思想中最优秀的东西。中国传统文化曾以其辉煌夺目的光焰照亮了整个东方并广泛传布于东亚地区，使中国成为东亚文化圈的中心。中国古代文化的外传不仅限于古代科技中的几项发明，还在文学、哲学、艺术方面起到过积极作用。但传统文化主要产生于中国封建社会，经过几千年的兴衰变迁，难免带有时代局限性。在文化传播的过程中，对文化符号的选择要处理好传统文化与当代文化的关系。一些孔子学院的中华文化活动课除了剪纸就是系中国结，要不就是书法、太极拳，且不论代表性如何，这些中华才艺不免有自我矮化、自我女性化的倾向。英国文化人类学家泰勒在《原始文化》一书中指出：“所谓文化或文明乃是包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习惯以及其他人类作为社会成员而获得的种种能力、习性在内的一种复合整体。”（汪灵灵，20XX）由此观之，孔院开设的文化活动课未免稍显狭隘与陈旧。中国的当代文化绝不是书法、太极拳等等能够简单代表的。

　　三、当代文化的时代性、日常性与有形文化

　　当代文化是融入每个人的日常生活中活的文化，同时也能反应一个时代的特征。以“春运”为例，这是中国特有的现象，同时也是每一个在外地工作、求学的中国人会经历的事情，“春运”作为一个文化现象，体现了中国人浓重的家庭观念和对春节的重视——无论游子身在何方，除夕夜之前都要赶回家与家人团聚，共享天伦之乐。有形文化就是将文化内化到具体事物中反映民族精神、民族心理和民族情感。将有形文化发挥到极致的要数日本的动漫文化，作为日本国家3重要支柱产业之一，日本动漫已经成为代表着日本文化最有价值的出口产品，日本动漫延伸出的衍生产品早已不知不觉渗入我们的生活，无一不彰显着日本文化的影响和魅力。以日本动漫《海贼王》为例，故事中的人物既有崇尚自然、温文尔雅的一面，同时兼具鲁莽任性、刚毅坚强的特质。美国人类学家鲁思·本尼迪克特所著《菊与刀》一书很好地阐述了日本文化矛盾性的文化印记，他们彬彬有礼，却又蛮横、倨傲;他们无比顽固，却又极易适应激烈的革新;他们性格温顺，却又不轻易服从上级的控制。日本人果真如此，他们既有刀的刚硬，又有菊的柔美。（马攀，20XX）体现日本文化精神的动漫不仅有体现菊与刀的矛盾性的《海贼王》，还有体现忍者精神的《火影忍者》，体现民族性格中含蓄温顺一面的《萤火虫之墓》、《千与千寻》等等。当韩剧、日漫、美剧、英剧刮着文化风暴向我们袭来的时候，拥有着灿烂的华夏文明，有着历史悠久、丰富多彩，令每个华夏子孙所骄傲的中国文化却没有能成为世界文化舞台主角的文化产品，这确实是值得深思的现状。

　　四、在世界面前展现独立的中国形象

　　孔子学院本身就是一种文化现象，它不是词汇的概念意义，而是传播中国文化并期望得到对方认同从而实现和谐共存以至于相交相融的过程，也可以说是超越于两种文化的“第三种文化”建设的过程。（汪灵灵，20XX）从这个意义上讲，孔子学院的文化定位应该是“第三种文化”。“第三种文化”的性质决定了孔子学院在开设文化活动的时候应该具有不同的层次，首先应该是“窗口文化”，通过搭建文化窗口，让外国人有兴趣了解中华文化的过去与将来;其次是“门文化”，能让外国人走进来体验中华文化。层次性还应体现在文化内容上，中华文化有传统文化、现代文化，经典文化、大众文化之分。社会文化可以形象化为节日、饮食、民俗、建筑、艺术等方方面面。文化内容不仅包括古典文化、传统文化，更重要的现实组成部分是当代文化，外国人更希望了解的是如今的中国社会文化风貌。如何在世界人民面前展现独立的中国形象，孔子学院需要发挥文化窗口作用。对博大精深的中华文化来说，当文化符号脱离文化内涵而独立呈现的时候，它不过是一个手工或一项活动;当文化符号所蕴含的文化意义通过文化符号呈现时，才能反映中国某一方面的文化。

　　五、结语

　　本文受顾伟列教授讲座（“中华文化走出去：基于汉语国际教育的新路径”）的启发，探讨了“自我东方化”这一概念的含义以及对传播中华文化时文化符号的选择。文化符号应该具有民族代表性，同时要处理好传统文化与当代文化的关系，具有日常性的有形文化往往能起到很好的传播作用。由此我们应该反思孔院的文化活动课该如何开展，以达到在国际舞台上展示一个拥有独立话语权的、现代的、进步的国家形象。

篇四：自我东方化

　　

　　作者：阿里夫·德里克[1];曾艳兵[2]作者机构：[1]美国杜克大学;[2]青岛大学出版物刊名：东方论坛：青岛大学学报页码：32-38页主题词：后现代;指涉性;“后学”;“自我东方化”摘要：1999年,王逢振和谢少波合作,以通讯方式采访了一些西方理论家和批评家.本文是德里克对其中部分问题作出的回答,包括现代主义的指涉性、理论的可译性、后现代主义与后殖民主义、东方主义与"自我东方化"等问题.文中观点体现了作者个人的独特视角.全文三万余字,这里发表的是其中的一部分,原文为英文,为了方便读者阅读,译为中文发表.

篇五：自我东方化

　　

　　作者：周游作者机构：华东师范大学思勉人文高等研究院,200241出版物刊名：史林页码：179-183页年卷期：2014年第4期主题词：病夫黄祸睡狮国族想象自我东方化摘要：杨瑞松通过对“病夫”、“黄祸”与“睡狮”等三个近代“西方”中国／中国人形象的考察，指出近代中国知识分子对这些符号的“挪用和重编”，使它们成为百年来中国人共有的集体记忆符号。这些符号的国族化过程，也存在德里克所言的“自我东方化”现象。国族符号由于具有区别“我族”与“他族”、强化“我族”自我认同的效用，使它们成为中国近代国族建构想象中的重元素。

篇六：自我东方化

　　

　　东西方的“自我”差异

　　“我是谁？”这是一个亘古不变之问，一代代的哲学家、科学家都在思索这个问题，这个问题也困扰着我们每一个人。作为东方文化下成长起来的中国人，你是如何认识“自我”的呢？东西方文化中“自我”这一概念又有哪些异同呢？

　　独立性自我与互依性自我

　　在认知领域，科学家们常使用“自我参照加工”和“其他参照加工”的比较，来探讨“自我”对人类认知的影响。研究发现，在通常情况下，与“自我参照”有关的信息，会得到优先加工——即人们对与自己关系密切的信息加工速度更快。

　　在我们的常识中，西方文化更强调个体的独立性，重视自我认同，因此研究者将这种自我认知称为“独立性自我”。而东方文化更强调基本的社会联接，特别是与家庭成员之间的紧密关系，科学家把这种文化背景下产生的自我称为“互依性自我”。东方人会对重要的他人信息更为敏感，并且对他们倾注的注意和对自己的同样多。目前，这种跨文化差异已经得到了不少科学研究的证实。

　　有研究者发现，英国人对自我面孔的识别优势要显著高于中国人。在大脑的活动方面，中、英两组也表现出相反的模式：英国小组在判断自己的面孔时表现出深度加工，而中国小组则是在判断熟悉面孔（朋友面孔）时加工更深，即倾注了更多的注意。

　　与此同时，研究者对这种在自我参照中存在的跨文化差异，又进行了进一步研究。在同时引入“他人参考”的条件下，研究者发现了一个有趣的现象。在对中国个体的研究中，与“自我”及“母亲”有关的记忆测试中，个体表现一样好；而在西方国家进行的测试则表明，与“自我”有关的词语记忆成绩最好，而与“母亲”有关的词语的记忆成绩则明显较差。这一结果说明，在东方文化背景下，个体的自我概念是更为广泛的。

　　这种文化比较研究的结果一经发表，便引起了很多科学家的重视，于是一些科学家开始通过行为实验及脑成像的方法，展开了更深入的研究，从而有了更多的新发现。

　　自我面孔识别的差异

　　识别面孔是人类建立社会关系的基础，我们甚至有特异性的脑区专门负责面孔识别。该脑区在看到面孔时活动最强，在看到其他东西（如风景或者房子）时，激活水平比较低。在婴幼儿时期，我们最先能够记得妈妈或其他抚养者的面孔，这符合进化的原则。此外，识别自我面孔的能力也在婴幼儿时期发展起来，研究表明，婴儿在出生第二年就能够区分镜子前的自我面孔。

　　通常情况下，我们对自己面孔的识别，会优于对其他面孔的识别，即识别速度更快。但是北京大学韩世辉教授的研究发现，这种与自我相关的加工优势，会受到社会情境的影响。

　　在韩世辉的研究中，被试者为在读研究生，实验要求他们完成一个“面孔朝向判断”，面孔图片里既有自己导师的面孔图片，也有实验室其他老师的面孔图片，同时也可能出现自己的照片。结果发现，学生看到自己的照片比看到实验室其他老师的照片反应要快，这和预期相符合。但是，令人有点惊讶的是，他们看到自己导师的照片反应更快！同时，如果个体越担心导师在日常学习中注意到自己缺点，这种反应时差异（识别自我面孔与识别导师面孔相比较）就会更大。

　　研究者指出，在中国的文化背景下，导师的权威身份对学生的自尊会有较大的影响，甚至会改变“自我概念”在认知系统中的“地位”。

　　东西方的自我概念

　　最能体现“自我”本质的应该是自我概念。自我概念涉及到一个人如何看待自己，通常情况下与自我相关的信息能够得到优先加工，个体对于和自我有关的词语的记忆成绩也会更好，这一现象被称为“自我参照效应”。

　　研究者通过比较人们在“自我参照”和“他人参照”条件下的脑

　　激活情况，来确定与自我概念相关的脑区。实验发现，大脑背外侧前额叶多与执行控制等认知活动有关，而内侧前额叶则在自我相关材料的加工中表现出活跃状态，这说明自我概念在大脑的认知系统中，的确有着不一样的地位。

　　以脑激活作为标准，中国与丹麦的研究者进行了合作。丹麦被试者和中国被试者的文化差异是否也会通过脑激活水平反映出来呢？

　　这次研究中，心理学家把“自我”分成了不同的成分，包括个人的物质属性、社会属性和人格属性。研究者的实验材料选择的是一系列自我属性，比如物质属性方面有瘦弱、黑头发等；社会属性方面如房东、教授；人格属性如勤奋、自私。被试者除了判断这些词语是否和自己一致外，同时也要判断这些词语是否与其他人（比如社会公众人物）一致。

　　脑成像研究的结果发现，在上述提到的3种属性判断中：丹麦个体的自我加工优势均高于中国个体——即丹麦组在内测前额叶脑活动水平更高，而这一脑区和自我概念加工最为密切。而中国组在加工社会属性时，在大脑颞顶联合区的活动水平更高。颞顶联合区位于颞叶和顶叶的交界处，在我们试图去理解他人的观点时，该脑区会有较高的活动水平，同时该脑区也部分参与自我概念的加工。实验还发现，个体的“文化互依性”越强，颞顶联合区越活跃；而这种互依性越强，内侧前额叶的活动越弱，这说明脑区激活上的差异可能与文化背景有关。

　　探讨了东西方文化关于“自我”的差异，你是不是也想知道自己对“自我”到底了解多少呢？不妨写下以“我是——”开头的句子，完成一个小学时已经开始学习的句子完成任务，比如“我是认真的”；当你完成20个句子时，便会对自己有一个大致的了解。当然，如果你身边有来自其他国家的人，那就比较一下你们的看法，看看到底有多大差异吧。

　　读书笔记：

　　读完此文以后，你是否觉出中国人为什么关系学盛行、性格软弱、喜欢君主统治、乐于做奴隶的原因了呢？那么怎样去改变他呢？

篇七：自我东方化

　　

　　2021.a新闻传播News

　　Dissemination从“他塑”到“自塑”-试析新时期我国主流电影国家形象建构与传播夏晔婕(温州大学浙江325000)【摘要】电影是建构国家形象的重要媒介，“他塑”与“自塑”两种不同的诠释方式体现了媒介背后所蕴涵的政治、经济、文化等权力机制。本文通过考察近40年来我国电影的国家形象建构，指出新时期中国主流电影已经打破了“他塑”的束缚，摆脱了“自我东方化”的桎梏，在文化价值和视听技术层面实现了从“他塑”到“自塑”的回归。【关键词】自塑；他塑；国家形象；主流电影他塑”与“自塑”：国家形象建构的两种权力机制"他塑”与"自塑的区别，还要从传播内容方面进行考量。因为即使在建构国家形象的过程中媒介主体是本国媒国家形象一词带有鲜明的政治性，美国政治学家布丁(Boulding，K.E.)认为‘"国家形象是一个国家对自己的认知以及国际体系中其他行为体对它的认知的结合；它是一系列信息输入和输出产生的结果。u随着全球政治、经济、文化交流与影响日益深入，国家形象的建构与传播也深受各国政府重视。印度尤其注重电影对国家形象的作用，作为电影高产大国，印度的电影已然成为了印度国家形象建构与传播的重要手段。无数海外观众正是通过电影这一窗口来感受印度的宗教情怀与热情的民族恃质，因此电影在国家形象的建构与传播过程中发挥了不可替代的作用。完整的国家形象建构包括“他塑"’与"自塑"两种权

　　力机制。学界通常从媒介归属来划分“他塑”与‘‘自

　　塑”。"他塑"指他国主控传媒建构另一国形象。刘嫦认为："他塑的目的是以他国的差异为考量来证明本国主流意识形态的存在合理性，从而满足为本国在国际行为中最大限度地谋求利益的需求。”

　　111“自塑，顾名思义是由本国的媒介来建构本国形象，包括本国人文历史、政治经济、社会自然、国民等若干维度。”自塑的一个意义在于本国掌握了国家形象构建的话语权，能更好地塑造本国形象。[21笔者认为，单一从媒介主体来划分"他塑”与“自

　　塑”缺乏准确性。媒介主体只是判断“他塑”与"自塑”

　　的外在条件，想要更加深入地理解国家形象建构过程中介，也并不意味着国家形象的建构是通过"_塑"完成

　　的。笔者认为，在内容创作上，一切迎合’‘他者”眼光和“自我东方化”的创作理念，即使媒介主体属于本国，其国家形象建构依然属于"他塑”。与媒介主体相比，内容创作上的“他塑”更加隐蔽也更加容易被忽略。尤其是在中国电影走出国门的早期，在内容创作上迎合西方眼光的倾向更加强烈。总的来说，我国主流电影在国家形象建构与传播过程中想要完成从‘‘他塑”到“自塑”的转变，不仅要发挥好本国媒介的主导作用；更要巩固文化自信，在内容创作上不主动迎合"他者”，不一味"自我东方化”，理性平和地讲好中国故事，向世界发出中国之音。二、主流电影与国家形象建构媒介在国家形象建构与传播过裎中发挥着重要功能，与新闻媒介建构的“现实”国家形象相比，电影媒介所建构的"虚拟”国家形象在国际传播过程中可以更好地发挥潜移默化的涵养作用。新闻媒介在建构和传播国家形象方面存在短板，原因在于“西方社会对我国政治较敏感，加以对国内新闻媒介的成见，传播积极的国家形象往往被片面地理解为灌输、宣传、操纵，遭到西方的抵触。”

　　M

　　新闻媒介天然具备政治性与严肃性，因此海内外观众都更加倾向接受电影这一具有娱乐属性的传播形式。不论【作者简介】夏晔婕，温州大学硕士研究生在读；研究方向：文化创意传播。

　　2021.新闻传播News

　　Dissemination是发达国家还是发展中国家，都不遗余力地利用好电影媒介来塑造国家形象。例如美国通过"超级造梦工厂”好莱坞向世界传递个人英雄主义，在全球范围内宣扬美国普适价值观。由此可以看出，电影不仅是娱乐工具和艺术欣赏品，也是在世界范围内展出国家形象的‘‘巡回旅行团”。相比新闻媒介，电影以其引人入胜的故事和精彩绝伦的视听盛宴使受众放下戒备与成见，在潜移默化中实现国家形象的置在西方人的视角来讲述，过分依赖西方男性或他者的眼光去呈现S我的故事；我们更应该警惕在叙事的过程中天然地将西方人作为拯救者和见证人的角色。目前国际电影的评选制度依然处在一种西方为主导的现实情况下，我们可以理解，《金陵十三钗〉作为_部大制作的电影，导演在建构国家形象时采取了一种主动的、进军国际的策略，即寄希望于通过自我东方化来获得国际认可。但为了更好、更客观地构建中国形象，导演们应该建构与传播。三、早期主流电影的困境：“迎合他者”与"自我东

　　方化”电影媒介是建构与传播国家形象的重要桥梁，然而在20世纪80年代前，中国电影几乎处于与世隔绝的尴尬境地。由于中国电影早期在国际舞台上的“失语”，使得我国国家形象主要以海外媒体的"他塑"为主，成为了“任西方媒体打扮的小姑娘"。1988年，张艺谋导演的《红高粱〉获得柏林国际电影节最佳影片金熊奖，叩响了中国电影走向世界影坛的大门。尽管〈红高粱〉的出现打破了我国电影长期以来的“失语"现象，但考察以张艺谋为代表的中国第五代导演所创作的诸多影片，依然可以发现在国家形象建构上存在着明显的"他塑”痕迹。这其中不乏历史原因，在那个时代我国电影急切期待走出国门，获得国际认可，因此在内容上大多采取“迎合他者”与‘‘自我东方化"的形式来满足国外评委与观众对中国"民族寓言式”的想象。这种“自我东方化"的创作理念，在第五代导演影视作品中所展示的黄土地、红灯笼、深宅大院、京剧脸谱、婚丧嫁娶、红卫兵等自然奇观和民俗形象可窥见一斑。虽然“迎合他者”与"自我东方化”是80年代以来中国电影进入国际市场的常用策略，但随着中国国力不断强盛，东西方交流日益频繁，新时期的电影想通过"自我东方化”的方式再次博得好评与关注已很难奏效。张艺谋2011年导演的电影〈金陵十三钗〉就因其将故事内容设定为典型的“西方拯救东方”的模式而饱受国内观众的批评。在面对战争的灾难和死亡的威胁时，以玉墨为代表的风尘女子和以书娟为代表的学生群体都不约而同地把救赎的希望寄托在一个冒充神父的美国人身上。这样的表述方式和情境设定已然陷入了“自我东方主义”的泥潭，影片基本沿用了西方式的、好莱坞式的叙事框架，并且采取了较为经典的东方主义式叙事模式。学者们对此类电影范式已经展开了批评，我们应该警惕把中国故事放尽早放弃对"自我东方化”的这条路径的依赖。事实证明，"自我东方化”对于斩获国际大奖已经越来越难奏

　　效。并且该片在国外市场上的票房表现也颇为惨淡，尤其在北美市场仅有31万美元的票房，这对于投资6亿人民帀的电影来说可谓是个不小的打击。业界和市场的反馈也直接促使电影工作者认识到转变国家形象建构方式的重要

　　性，在新时期更加注重塑"家国形象，讲好中国故事。四、新时期主流电影的突破：“自塑”国家形象，讲好中国故事从20世纪80年代在海外获奖无数的电影《红高粱〉

　　到2011年票房折腰的《金陵十三钗》，我国电影的跨文化传播之路历经了三十多年的发展，终于明确了国家形象的建构要从“他塑”转换为“自塑”。这种转换，不仅仅在于对媒介主体的掌握，更重要的是在内容创作层面要具备充足的文化自信和民族认同。近十年来，中国主流电影的国家形象建构逐渐从"他塑”转换为"自塑”，并努力实现政治性、商业性与艺术性三者融合统一。从最初的主旋律电影三部曲《建国大业><建党伟业><建军大业》到近年的（红海行动〉（战狼2>〈流浪地球>,中国主流电影完成了从宣教为主到政治宣传、艺术审美和商业利益三者并重的探索与转型之路。新时期的主流电影不仅获得了国内观众的广泛认可，在国外市场也屡创票房佳绩，例如2019年上映的《流浪地球〉在海外票房超过587万美金，并创下了北美市场史上最卖座的国产电影纪录。由此可以看出，我国电影只有打破自我东方化”的窠臼，摆脱“仰望他者"的心理，才能真正建构好国家形象，讲好中国故事。我国电影在"自塑"国家形象的过程中，离不开对中国文化价值定位的“自我回归”，也不能缺少视听技术上的"自我突破”。(―)文化价值定位的“自我回归"电影是文化价值的重要载体，我们对一部电影的认可

　　2021新New闻s

　　传Dis播semination归根到底是对其所宣传的价值理念的认可。好莱坞电影喂养了包括中国人在内的一代全球观众，不仅收割了无数人的钱袋，还传递了美国的情怀和价值观。新时期中国主流电影在文化价值定位上没有选择亦步亦趋地跟随好莱坞电影模式，更没有舍本逐末地放弃中国人合作共赢的“集体主义”思想去一味追逐高大全的"个人英雄”形象。在国家形象的建构上，新时期中国主流电影始终立足民族的情感和心理，打造属于我们国家的“英雄形象”，传递中国人的情感理念和世界观。新时期中国主流电影中所塑造的英雄角色都不是自带主角光环的"孤胆英雄"，而是齐心协力、一起战胜困难的"集体英雄”形象。在《红海行动》中，“采取的是任务型、段落式的叙事手法，以极具震撼力的高密度的场景、行动和气势，正面聚焦和凸显现代中国海军的团体作战技能及智慧，刻画了中国海军集体英雄的群像。”

　　141在国产硬科幻电影《流浪地球》中，也突出了“集体英雄”的概念。英雄可以是很多人，很多团队，但这并不妨碍观众对主角刘培强的认可和喜爱。因为导演在刻画集体英雄的群像时没有落入千人一面和过于琐碎的窠曰，因为集体主义一样可以绽放光芒，平凡的个人团结在一起也可以异常出彩。更何况“带着地球去流浪”的浪漫构想，体现了中国人自古以来浓厚的"家国情怀”和难以割舍的“故土情结”，也体现了当今中国所提倡的"人类命运共同体

　　的思想理念。从以上分析我们可以看出，新时期的中国主流电影在国家形象的建构过程中已经逐步告别了对西方类型电影和英雄人物塑造方式的一味模仿。在创作中摸索出符合中国人文化基因和审美倾向的叙事方式，以_种更加包容、开放的姿态完成从“他塑”到“自塑"的s信回归。(二）视听技术的“自我突破”电影作为一种光影艺术，从诞生以来就不断满足着人们对还原现实的冲动和对荧幕真实感的渴求。在欧美大片的强势影响下，新一代电影观众所被培养起来的视觉审美标准已经呈现出大场景、大制作的商业电影审美倾向。在此背景下，我国电影产业也不断提升科技硬实力，独立打造出一系列具有浓厚重工业美学风格的电影。这些制作精良、视觉震撼的重工业电影无疑进一步助力了我国国家形象在海内外的塑造与传播。重工业电影的出现象征着我国电影的视听制作水平取得了巨大的飞跃，陈旭光教授认为“重工业电影”的最大特点就是可以在电影的"工业”特性与美学欣赏上取得一定程度的文化含量的折中。在〈流浪地球〉中，在展示地下城、空间站、未来末世、冰天雪地等奇观性场景时，都没有流于蜻蜓点水式的展示，而是在视听技术上落到实处。影片中的地名和地标建筑，也没有采用虚构策略，而是在技术上最大程度地还原，给观众带来视听的震撼感。"{红海行动><战狼2>也是重工业电影的典型作

　　品，不仅将导弹驱逐舰、无人机等很难在电影中见到的作战武器都搬上了银幕，而且将坦克、大炮、飞机、重机枪、火箭炮等众多超大型作战武器也都呈现出来，并将这些装备元素有机整合，达到了令人震撼的观影效果。”

　　1512019年春节档上映的国产硬科幻电影《流浪地球》也是对“重工业电影美学”的进一步尝试。从角色身着的防护服入手，到特殊道具制作，再到宇宙空间的多维立体打造，幕后团队经历了从概念设计到最终呈现，打磨了数百次，才终于展现出带有“流浪美学”与重工业质感的佳作。中国观众在看多了身怀绝技的超级英雄独自拯救地球的美国好莱坞大片后，惊奇地发现中国人也可以以独立的姿态，团体协作的智慧拯救地球，开创新的家园。结语从国家形象建构的权力机制来考察，新时期中国主流电影已经实现了从"他塑”到“自塑”的回归。我们不再幻想通过“自我东方化”的方式去迎合“他者”的眼光，也不再一味展示各类视觉奇观与民俗奇观来博取眼球。新时期中国主流电影坚持以"文化为根，内容为魂”，在经济自强、文化自信的基础上建构好和传播好国家形象。我国电影从"他塑’’到“自塑”的回归，不仅点燃了中国观众的爱国热情，也在海外传播的过程中向全世界展示了一个充满着文化自信与制度自信的大国形象。参考文献：[1]刘嫦，任东升.对传媒“自塑”和“他塑”国家形象的价值学思考〇].天府新论，2〇14(04):130_133.[2]

　　赵泓他塑”与“自塑”:论中国形象的构建[J].电影文学，2019(02):18-20.[3]陈林侠.跨文化背景下电影媒介建构国家形象的重要功能U].社会科学,2011(04):178-183.[4]王霞.新主流大片国家形象的艺术表达与创新—电影《战狼2》与《红海行动》比较分析[J].新闻前哨,2〇18(〇6):

　　73-74.[5]张婧.影视作品对国家形象建构的影响——由《2》引发的思考〇].当代电视，2〇!7(12):1〇8-1〇9.—

　　战狼